INDIAN'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS
International Context
Many new countries were emerging as a result of the collapse of colonialism; and most new nations were trying to come to terms with the twin challenges of welfare and democracy.
The British government left behind the legacy of many international disputes. Partition created its own pressures, and the task of poverty alleviation was already waiting for fulfilment.
India decided to conduct its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to achieve security through the maintenance of peace. This aim finds an echo in the Directive Principles of State Policy (Article-51).
Policy of Non-Alignment
India achieved its freedom and started framing its foreign policy, the cold war was just beginning and this period was marked by the political, economic, and military confrontation at the global level between the two blocs led by the superpowers, the US and USSR.
The same period also witnessed developments like the establishment of the UN, the creation of nuclear weapons, the emergence of communism, and the beginning of the decolonisation.
So India's leadership had to pursue its national interests within the prevailing international context.
The formulation and implementation of India’s foreign policy from 1946 to 1964 was exercised by Nehru. The three major objectives of Nehru’s foreign policy were to preserve the hard-earned sovereignty, protect territorial integrity, and promote rapid economic development.
Despite many leaders wanting to follow pro-US foreign policy, Nehru wanted to achieve his objectives of foreign policy through non alignment strategy.
India vigorously pursued the dream of a peaceful world by advocating the policy of non-alignment. So, India wanted to keep away from the military alliances led by the US and Soviet Union against each other.
India took an independent stand on various international issues and could get aid and assistance from members of both the blocs.
India's growing partnership with the Soviet Union hurt the sentiments of the US. Therefore, there was a considerable unease in Indo-US relations during the 1950s.
Afro-Asian Unity
Nehru envisaged a major role for India in world affairs and especially in Asian affairs. His era was marked by the establishment of contacts between India and other newly independent states in Asia and Africa.
Under his leadership, India convened the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947.
India was a staunch supporter of the decolonisation process and firmly opposed racism, especially apartheid in South Africa.
The Afro- Asian conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955, commonly known as the Bandung Conference, which led to the establishment of the NAM.
Peace and Conflict with China
Independent India began its relationship with China on a very friendly note. After the Chinese revolution in 1949, India was one of the first countries to recognise the communist government.
Some of his(Nehru) colleagues, like Vallabhbhai Patel, were worried about a possible Chinese aggression in future. But Nehru thought it was ‘exceedingly unlikely’ that India will face an attack from China.
The joint enunciation of ‘‘Panchsheel’’ (the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence), by the Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954 was a step in the direction of stronger relationship between the two countries.
Chinese Invasion, 1962
China annexed Tibet in 1950 and thus removed a historical buffer between the two countries. Initially, the government of India did not oppose this openly. But as more information came in about the suppression of Tibetan culture, the Indian government grew uneasy.
A boundary dispute had surfaced between India and China. The main dispute was about the western(aksai-chin of present ladakh) and the eastern end(NEFA of Arunachal Pradesh) of the long border.
Between 1957 and 1959,the Chinese occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road there.
China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed regions.
The Sino-Indian conflict and the growing rift between China and the Soviet Union created irreconcilable differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI). The pro-USSR faction remained within the CPI and moved towards closer ties with the Congress.
The war with China alerted Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast region. The process of its reorganisation began soon after the China war.
Nagaland was granted statehood, Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the right to elect their own legislative assemblies.
Wars and Peace with Pakistan
The conflict started just after Partition over the dispute on Kashmir.
The issue was then referred to the UN. Pakistan soon emerged as a critical factor in India’s relations with the US and subsequently with China.
The India- Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960. Despite all ups and downs in the Indo-Pak relations, this treaty has worked well.
In April 1965 Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat. This was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August- September.
In order to ease the pressure on the Kashmir front, Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive on the Punjab border.
The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention. Later, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.
Bangladesh War, 1971
Beginning in 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis. The country's first general election produced a split verdict between Zulfikar Ali and sheikh Mujib Ur Rahman.
The Bengali population of East Pakistan had voted to protest against years of being treated as second class citizens by the rulers based in West Pakistan.
The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the democratic verdict.
Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan and took shelter in the neighbouring areas in India.
After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in December 1971.
With Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire. Later, the signing of the ‘‘Shimla Agreement’’ between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July 1972 formalised the return of peace.
India, with its limited resources, had initiated development planning.
The scarce resources were diverted to the defence sector especially after 1962, as India had to embark on a military modernisation drive.
The Department of Defence Production was established in November 1962 and the Department of Defence Supplies in November 1965.
The Third Plan (1961-66) was affected and it was followed by three Annual Plans and the Fourth Plan could be initiated only in 1969.
India’s defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.
India's Nuclear Policy
India’s first nuclear explosion undertaken by India in May 1974.
Nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru was against nuclear weapons.
The five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council tried to impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of the world. India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
When India conducted its first nuclear test, it was termed as a peaceful explosion. India argued that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
India has opposed the international treaties aimed at non-proliferation since they were selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapons powers.
Thus, India opposed the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 and also refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes.
India’s nuclear doctrine of credible minimum nuclear deterrence professes “no first use” and reiterates India’s commitment to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapons free world.
Share
& Comment
Tweet