THE DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OF THE SOCIETY 

What is Demography?

Demography is the systematic study of the population of a country, area, community, etc.

Types of Demography

There are two types of demography:

(i). Formal Demography : Statistical analysis of population i.e., total population, number of males, number of females, number of youth, working population, rural urban (quantitative data).

(ii). Social Demography : Birth rate, death rate and migration that happens in a particular society. 

Importance of Demography to Sociology

1. Demography is a field that is special importance to sociology :

(i). The emergence of sociology and its successful establishment as an academic discipline owed a lot to demography. 

(ii). Two different processes happened to take place at roughly the same time in Europe during the latter half of the eighteenth century. The formation of nation-states as the principal form of political organization, and the beginnings of the modern science of statistics.

(iii). The modern state had begun to expand its role and functions. It had, for instance, begun to take an active interest in the development of early forms of public health management, policing and maintenance of law and order, economic policies relating to agriculture and industry, taxation and revenue generation and the governance of cities.

2. Demographic data are important for the planning and implementation of state policies, especially those for economic development and general public welfare.

3. Social statistics also provided a strong justification for the new discipline of sociology.

4. Aggregate statistics or the numerical characteristics that refer to a large collectivity consisting of millions of people and offer a concrete and strong argument for the existence of social phenomena.

Distinction Between Formal Demography and Social Demography

(i). Formal demography is primarily concerned with the measurement and analysis of the components of population change. Its focus is on quantitative analysis for which it has a highly developed mathematical methodology suitable for forecasting population growth and changes in the composition of population.

(ii). Population studies or social demography, on the other hand, enquires into the wider causes and consequences of population structures and change. Social demographers believe that social processes and structures regulate demographic processes; like sociologists, they seek to trace the social reasons that account for population trends.

The Malthusian Theory of Population Growth

1. Malthusian Theory was propounded by Thomas Robert Malthus.

2. According to him there are two important things that matter.

(i). Human Population – People

(ii). Means of subsistence – Land (food, clothing and other agriculture-based products).

3. According to him, the population can grow uncontrollably and it grows in ‘geometric progression’ (2, 4, 8,16, 32, etc). Whereas agriculture production gives limited return and it grows only in ‘arithmetic progression’ (2,4,6,8,10 ),It is slow. As a result there is an imbalance in society.

4. Population growth always outstrips growth in production of subsistence resources, the only way to increase prosperity is by controlling the growth of population.

5. Malthus came up with 2 solutions:

(i). Preventive Checks: Humanity has only a limited ability to voluntarily reduce the growth of its population (Man made), eg: postponing marriage, celibacy etc. 

(ii). Positive Checks : In the form of famines and diseases were inevitable because they are nature's way of dealing with imbalance between food supply and increasing population.

Criticism of Malthus Theory

1. It was also challenged by theorists who claimed that economic growth would outstrip population growth.

2. The most effective refutation of his theory was provided by the historical experience of European countries.

3. The pattern of population growth began to change in the latter half of the 19th century, and by the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century these changes were quite dramatic.

4. Birth rates had declined, and outbreaks of epidemic diseases were being controlled. Malthus’s predictions were proved false because both food production and standards of living continued to rise despite the rapid growth of population.

5. Malthus was also criticised by liberal and Marxist scholars for asserting that poverty was caused by population growth.

6. The critics argued that problems like poverty and starvation were caused by the unequal distribution of economic resources rather than by population growth.

7. An unjust social system allowed a wealthy and privileged minority to live in luxury while the vast majority of the people were forced to live in poverty.

Theory of Demographic Transition

Population is moving from underdeveloped to developed countries. There are three stages:

1. Primitive Stage - Low population growth in a society that is underdeveloped and technically backward. Eg: Underdeveloped Countries - Africa and Latin america.

2. Second Stage - Growth rates are low because both the death rate and birth rate are very high, so that the difference between the two is low. Eg: Developing countries -India, Pakistan. (Transition stage - Countries are moving from underdeveloped to developed and some countries developing to developed) .

3. Third Stage - Both birth rate and death rate have been reduced considerably and the difference between them is again small. Eg: Developed countries (USA, UK).

Population Explosion : It happens because death rates are brought down relatively quickly through advanced methods of disease control, public health, and better nutrition. However, it takes longer for society to adjust change and alter its reproductive behaviour.

In India too, the demographic transition is not yet complete as the mortality rate has been reduced but the birth rate has not been brought down to the same extent.

Common Concepts and Indicator

1. Birth Rate : Number of live births per thousand population.

2. Death Rate : Number of deaths per thousand population. Also called mortality rate.

3. Rate of natural increase : Difference between birth rate and death rate in an area.

4. Replacement Level : Present generation replaces the previous/older generation. 

Zero level : Replacement is the same. Same number of people replace the same number of the older generation called stabilized level (parents replaced by 2 children).

Negative level : Number of people replacing the older generation are less (parents replaced by a child).

5. Fertility Rate : Number of live births between the age of 15-49 yrs per thousand women.

6. Total Fertility Rate : Number of women who give birth to children in a particular area at a particular age (15-49 yrs) .

7. Infant Mortality Rate : Number of infants who have died below the age of 1 per 1000 live births.

8. Maternal Mortality Rate : Number of women who die during childbirth per thousand population.

9. Life expectancy Rate : Refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is expected to survive. It is calculated on the basis of data on age-specific death rates in a given area over a period of time.

10. Sex Ratio : Number of females per 1000 males.

11. Age structure : The population refers to the proportion of persons in different age groups relative to the total population.

12. The structure of the population in terms of age (in India 0-15 - youth, 15-65 - Working population, above 64 years-dependent population).

13. Dependency Ratio : Measure comparing the portion of a population which is composed of dependents with the portion that is in the working age group, generally defined as 15 to 64 years.

14. Demographic Dividend : It is also termed as benefit flowing from the changing age structure. However, this benefit is temporary because the larger pool of working age people will eventually turn into non-working old people.

Size and Growth of India’s Population

Today the population of India is very high but it has not always been high. Growth has been up and down. The growth rate of population substantially increased after independence from British rule going up to 2.2% during 1961-1981. Since then although the annual growth rate has decreased it remains one of the highest in the developing world.

Causes : One is Epidemics and the other is Natural Disasters/Famine

1. Epidemics : Disease which is widespread and affects lakhs of people in a large area. Eg: Spanish flu, malaria, tuberculosis, Diarrhoea etc. It spreads very fast and contagious before, because sanitation conditions were bad, medication facilities were low, etc. They are less common now because better medical facilities, quick vaccinations, sanitary conditions are improved and awareness of people have increased.

2. Famine : There is scarcity of food, shortage of food supply and production. It is of two types: 

(i). Natural : Excessive rainfall, no rainfall or drought. 

(ii). Manmade : Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, lack of transport and communication facilities, as well as inadequate efforts on the parts of the state were some of the factors responsible for famines.

Amartya Sen along with others have shown, famines were not necessarily due to fall in food grains production; they were also caused by a ‘failure of entitlements’, or the inability of people to buy or otherwise obtain food.

It can be controlled by : Substantial improvements in the productivity of Indian agriculture (specially through the expansion of irrigation). Improved means of communication. More vigorous relief and preventive measures by the state have all helped to drastically reduce deaths from famine. Nevertheless, starvation deaths are still reported from some backward regions of the country.

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) is the latest state initiative to tackle the problem of hunger and starvation in rural areas.

Total Fertility Rate

Unlike the death rate, the birth rate has not registered a sharp fall. This is because the birth rate is a socio-cultural phenomenon that is relatively slow to change. Once infant mortality rates decline, and there is an overall increase in levels of education and awareness, family size begins to fall.

The high birth rate and low death rate results in population explosion. Therefore, there are very wide variations in the fertility rates across the states of India. Birth rate is still high because of the mindset of people, desire of male child, and patrilineal society.

Replacement level : Kerala and Tamil Nadu have managed to bring down their total fertility rates and their replacement level is 2.1. While Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have very high replacement level i.e, 4.1.

Age Structure of Indian Population

India has a very young population. The majority of Indians tend to be young, and the average age is also less than that for most other countries. Age Structure of Indian Population:

0-15 - Young Population.

15-64 - Working Population.

Above 64 years - Old or Retired Population.

Most of this change will be at the two ends of the age spectrum : 

The 0 -14 age group will reduce its share by about 11% (from 34% in 2001 to 23% in 2026).

The 60 plus age group will increase its share by about 5% (from 7% in 2001 to about 12% in 2026.)

There are wide regional variations in the age structure as well.

While a state like Kerala is beginning to acquire an age structure like that of the developed countries, Uttar Pradesh presents a very different picture with high proportions in the younger age groups and relatively low proportions among the aged. India as a whole is somewhere in the middle, because it includes states like Uttar Pradesh as well as states that are more like Kerala. 

The bias towards younger age groups in the age structure is believed to be an advantage for India.

India is supposed to be benefitting from a ‘demographic dividend’ (Working population is higher than the non-working population). This dividend arises from the fact that the current generation of working-age people is a relatively large one, and it has only a relatively small preceding generation of old people to support.

Declining Sex-Ratio

Number of females per thousand males of a population. Child sex ratio-Number of girls per thousand boys. Sex ratio has always been a concern in India. 

Reasons for declining sex ratio : 

(i). Mindset of the people

(ii). Neglect of girl child 

(iii). Female foeticide/infanticide 

(iv). Maternal mortality rates-women die during childbirth.

Sonogram : The availability of the sonogram (an x-ray like diagnostic device based on ultrasound technology), originally developed to identify genetic or other disorders in the foetus, may be used to identify and selectively abort female foetuses.

The lowest child sex ratios are found in the most prosperous regions of India like Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat and Maharashtra are among the richest states of India in terms of per capita incomes, and they are also the states with the lowest child sex ratios. So the problem of selective abortions is not due to poverty or ignorance or lack of resources.

Although the government has passed strict laws banning this practice and imposing heavy fines and imprisonment as punishment, known as the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1996(Regulation and Prevention of Misuse), this law has been in force since 1996, and has been further strengthened in 2003.

Literacy

1. Literacy is the ability to read or write.

2. Literacy as a prerequisite to education is an instrument of empowerment.

3. Literacy levels have improved considerably after independence, and almost two-thirds of our population is now literate.

4. The literacy rate for women is almost 22% less than the literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively low levels. Thus, female literacy rose by almost 15% between 1991 and 2001 compared to the rise in male literacy of a little less than 12% in the same period.

5. There are three categories :

(i). Gender: More males are literate to females but it is becoming higher. 

(ii). Social Group: Higher income families have more literacy levels than those with lower income families. The Government is trying to bridge the gap through reservation for SC’s and ST’s. 

(iii). Regions: Kerala has a high literacy level(approaching universal literacy) as compared to Rajasthan, Bihar which have low literacy levels.

Rural-Urban Differences

The vast majority of the population of India has always lived in the rural areas, however the urban population has been increasing its share steadily,

Though agriculture is the main activity in rural areas, they are no longer interested in doing agricultural activities. Rural people are increasingly taking up non-agricultural activities, such as post office, teaching, small businesses, transport and communication etc.

Rural to Urban Migration

Mass media and communication channels are now bringing images of urban life styles and patterns of consumption into the rural areas.

Many resources of the rural areas are being taken away. Such as rivers drying up, land due to construction is making them move to urban areas.

In urban areas there is anonymity and no one cares about caste etc.

People who are not educated can pick up any job they like in urban areas.

There is a rapid rate of urbanization in the post-independence period.

Population Policy in India

In 1952 the National Family Planning Programme (NFPP) was introduced. It tried to influence the rate and pattern of the population in a socially desirable direction.

Its objectives were : Population should be controlled and awareness should be spread in a way which is socially desirable. Control the birth or reduce birth rate through birth control methods.

During the years of the National Emergency (1975-76), during this time, special laws and ordinances issued directly by the government were in force.

The government tried to intensify the effort to bring down the growth rate of population by introducing a coercive programme of mass sterilization. Vast numbers of mostly poor and powerless people were forcibly sterilized and there was massive pressure on lower level government officials (like school teachers or office workers) to bring people for sterilization in the camps that were organized for this purpose.

The National Family Planning Programme was renamed as the National Family Welfare Programme after the Emergency. The programme now has a broad-based set of socio-demographic objectives. A new set of guidelines were formulated as part of the National Population Policy of the year 2000, in which people were sterilized only if people agreed to. 

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