THE CHALLENGES OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Cultural Diversity

Different kinds of social institutions, ranging from the family to the market, can bring people together, create strong collective identities and strengthen social cohesion, the very same institutions can also be sources of inequality and exclusion. The term ‘diversity’ emphasises differences rather than inequalities. When we say that India is a nation of great cultural diversity, we mean that there are many different types of social groups and communities living here. These are communities defined by cultural markers such as language, religion, sect, race or caste. When these diverse communities are also part of a larger entity like a nation, then difficulties may be created by competition or conflict between them.

Challenges of Cultural Diversity

The difficulties arise from the fact that cultural identities are very powerful. Sometimes cultural differences are accompanied by economic and social inequalities, and this further complicates things. Measures to address the inequalities or injustices suffered by one community can provoke opposition from other communities. The situation is made worse when scarce resources – like river waters, jobs or government funds – have to be shared.

Cultural Communities and the Nation-State

The major challenges that diversity poses in India Issues such as regionalism, communalism and casteism.

Community Identity

The socialisation process involves a continuous dialogue, negotiation and even struggle against significant others( like our parents, family, kin group and our community).

Our community provides us the language (our mother tongue) and the cultural values through which we comprehend the world. It also anchors our self-identity.

Community identity is based on birth and belonging rather than on some form of acquired qualifications or accomplishment.

Ascriptive: They are determined by the birth and do not involve any choice on the part of the individuals concerned, due to which people often react emotionally or even violently whenever there is a perceived threat to their community identity. Ascriptive identities and community feeling is that they are universal. It is a social fact that no country or group ever mobilises its members to struggle for untruth, injustice or inequality – everyone is always fighting for truth, justice, equality etc.

Communities, Nations and Nation-States

Nations : A nation is a sort of large-scale community. It is a community of communities. Members of a nation share the desire to be part of the same political collectivity. This desire for political unity usually expresses itself as the aspiration to form a state.

State : In its most general sense, the term state refers to an abstract entity consisting of a set of political-legal institutions claiming control over a particular geographical territory and the people living in it. In Max Weber’s well-known definition, a state is a “body that successfully claims a monopoly of legitimate force in a particular territory.

Nation : A nation is a peculiar sort of community that is easy to describe but hard to define. It is hard to come up with any defining features, any characteristics that a nation must possess. Many nations are founded on the basis of common cultural, historical and political institutions like a shared religion, language, ethnicity, history or regional culture. There are many nations that do not share a single common language, religion, ethnicity and so on. On the other hand, there are many languages, religions or ethnicities that are shared across nations.

Nation, Multiple States : The criterion that comes closest to distinguishing a nation is the state. In today's world we believe in one nation, one state.

(i). USSR-Union of Soviet Socialist Republic - It was a nation state but had many countries which had their own culture and state since the government was counted, the people were not able to voice their opinions. Broke up in 1991.

(ii). People constituting a nation may actually be citizens or residents of different states. For example, there are more Jamaicans living outside Jamaica than in Jamaica.

(iii). ‘Dual citizenship’ laws : These laws allow citizens of a particular state to also, simultaneously be citizens of another state. Thus, to cite one instance, Jewish Americans may be citizens of Israel as well as the USA, they can even serve in the armed forces of one country without losing their citizenship in the other country.

One of the characteristic features of the modern era is the establishment of democracy and nationalism as dominant sources of political legitimacy. States ‘need’ the nation as much or even more than nations need states.

Policy of Assimilation : Policies that promote assimilation are aimed at persuading, encouraging or forcing all citizens to adopt a uniform set of cultural values and norms. These values and norms are usually entirely or largely those of the dominant social group.

Policy of Integration : Policies promoting integration are different in style but not in overall objective, because they insist that the public culture be restricted to a common national pattern, while all ‘non-national’ cultures are to be relegated to the private sphere. In this case too, there is the danger of the dominant group’s culture being treated as ‘national’ culture.

Community identities can act as a basis for nation formation, the already existing states view them as dangerous rivals. Therefore, states tend to favour a single homogenous national identity in order to have unity and togetherness. But this does not mean we should suppress the identity of the minority as it can lead to revolts and there will be no unity. By suppressing the non-national culture of minorities or smaller sections, it can lead to problems and instead of unity the country will divide.

Thus the government allows people to maintain cultural differences in order to have peace and harmony in the country. 

Cultural Diversity and the Indian Nation- State

Indian Nation-State

The Indian nation-state is socially and culturally one of the most diverse countries of the world. The population speaks about 1,632 different languages and dialects. As many as eighteen of these languages have been officially recognised and placed under the 8th Schedule of the Constitution, thus guaranteeing their legal status.

In terms of religion, about 80.5% of the population are Hindus, who in turn are regionally specific, plural in beliefs and practices, and divided by castes and languages.

About 13.4% of the population are Muslims, which makes India the world’s third largest Muslim country after Indonesia and Pakistan. The other major religious communities are Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%) and Jains (0.4%). Because of India’s huge population, these small percentages can also add up to large absolute numbers.

Nation-State and Relationship with Community Identity

The Indian case fits neither the assimilationist nor the integrationist model, from its very beginning the independent Indian state has ruled out an assimilationist model. However, the demand for such a model has been expressed by some sections of the dominant Hindu community.

Although ‘national integration’ is a constant theme in state policy, India has not been ‘integrationist’. The Constitution declares the state to be a secular state, but religion, language and other such factors are not banished from the public sphere. In fact these communities have been explicitly recognised by the state.

By international standards, very strong constitutional protection is offered to minority religions. In general, India’s problems have been more in the sphere of implementation and practice rather than laws or principles. On the whole, India can be considered a good example of a ‘state-nation’ though it is not entirely free from the problems common to nation-states.

Regionalism

Regionalism in India is rooted in India’s diversity of languages, cultures, tribes, and religions. Indian federalism has been a means of accommodating these regional sentiments. After Independence, initially the Indian state continued with the British-Indian arrangement dividing India into large provinces, also called ‘presidencies’. These were large multi-ethnic and multilingual provincial states constituting the major political-administrative units of a semi-federal state called Union of India. Eg: the Bombay Presidency was a multilingual state of Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada and Konkani speaking people and the Madras State was constituted by Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam speaking people. After the adoption of the Constitution, all these units of the colonial era had to be reorganised into ethno-linguistic States within the Indian union in response to strong popular agitations. Language coupled with regional and tribal identity but not religion, therefore provided the most powerful instrument for the formation of ethno-national identity in India. Respecting regional sentiments is not just a matter of creating States because this has to be backed up with an institutional structure that ensures their viability as relatively autonomous units within a larger federal structure. In India this is done by Constitutional provisions defining the powers of the States and the Centre. There are lists of ‘subjects’ or areas of governance which are the exclusive responsibility of either State or Centre, along with a ‘Concurrent List’ of areas where both are allowed to operate. On the whole the federal system has worked fairly well, though there remain many contentious issues.

Nation -State and Religion- Related Issues and Identities

The most contentious of all aspects of cultural diversity are issues relating to religious communities and religion based identities. These issues may be broadly divided into two related groups : Secularism & Communalism are about the state’s relationship to religion and to political groupings that invoke religion as their primary identity.

Minority & Majority: Minorities and majorities involve decisions on how the state is to treat different religious, ethnic or other communities that are unequal in terms of numbers and power.

Minority Rights and Nation Building

In Indian nationalism, the dominant trend was marked by an inclusive and democratic vision. Inclusive because it recognised diversity and plurality. Democratic because it sought to do away with discrimination and exclusion and bring forth a just and equitable society.

Majority and minority in sociology is connected with religion. Minority : In any religion are those who are numerically weaker as compared to majorities. Majority: In India, Hindus are the majority class (81 %).

Inclusive Nationalism : When all religions work together for one cause benefit of the country, to create unity in diversity. It recognises finality and diversity but in spite of this we come together. We try to do away with discrimination and create a democratic set up.

Exclusive Nationalism : When each religion does what in their point of view will benefit the country. The best way for the country to be progressive is by including inclusive reasoning in the constitution where all sections of society (including minority) are taken care of.

The Constituent Assembly tried to include social, political and economic justice when the constitution was drafted.

Religious minorities like the Parsis or Sikhs may be relatively well-off economically but they lack culturally(religious and cultural minorities).

In democratic politics, it is always possible to convert a numerical majority into political power through elections.

Religious or cultural minorities, regardless of their economic or social position are politically vulnerable. They must face the risk that the majority community will capture political power and use the state machinery to suppress their religious or cultural institutions, ultimately forcing them to abandon their distinctive identity.

The makers of the Indian Constitution were aware that a strong and united nation could be built only when all sections of people had the freedom to practice their religion, and to develop their culture and language. 

The Indian Constitution on minorities and cultural diversity

Article 29 : Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part there of having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same. No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or received out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.

Article 30 : All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.

Communalism, Secularism, and the Nation- State

Communalism 

‘Communalism’ refers to aggressive chauvinism based on religious identity (communalism is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion). The western meaning of communalism is to do with community which is a group of people doing something in common. Communalism is about politics, not about religion. All communalists do believe in a political identity based on religion. Communalism is an especially important issue in India because it has been a recurrent source of tension and violence.

Communal riots : Communal riots from pre-Independence times, often as a result of the divide-and-rule policy adopted by the colonial rulers. And other examples like the anti-Sikh riots in Delhi in 1984 and anti -Muslim violence in Gujrat in 2002. Reasons for communal riots are:

(i). Political instigation.

(ii). One community wants revenge on a community or average another community in the past.

(iii). To regain lost pride or protect their community.

(iv). During riots violence, loss of lives, destruction of poverty and assault, looting, rape take place all around.

Whenever there is a communal riot the government in power must take responsibility and should protect the victims.

Secularism

Indian Meaning : All religions should have and be given equal importance and every individual is allowed to freely practice, preach, profess any religion of their choice.

Western Meaning : Earlier the state was controlled by the church. The word ‘secular’ is used when the state is separate from the church. The church is not allowed to interfere in matters of the state.

Though secularisation evolved religion is restricted to private domain and not public. Secularisation came into being through modernity and related to rationality where you don’t attribute everything to religion & allow service to play a role, broadening of mindsets.

The Indian meaning is a combination of both and opposite of communal because India allows all religions to exist equally. Secularism is the opposite of religious chauvinism (Indian context).

One kind of difficulty is created by the tension between the western sense of the state maintaining a distance from all religions and the Indian sense of the state giving equal respect to all religions. Another set of complications is created by the tension between the Indian state’s simultaneous commitment to secularism as well as the protection of minorities.

- Majority questions that government giving reservations is unfair.

- Minority demands reservation because they will get out shadowed by the majority.

- Another difficulty is that the government tries to protect the minority but it is the majority values, festivals, etc. are being followed.

These kinds of controversies become harder to solve when political parties and social movements develop a vested interest in keeping them alive. India’s Constitution and legal structure has proved to be reasonably effective in handling the problems created by various kinds of communalism.

Nation building was viewed mainly as a state driven process of economic development and social transformation.

State and Civil Society

Democracy : Form of government where people have a say and have the right to vote for their leader (Political party) and can use their fundamental rights.

Authoritative : Form of government where people cannot question the government or hold them accountable, all civil rights are curtailed. The institutions are unable to respond to the needs of the people under authoritative government (banks).

Civil Society

Civil society is the non-state and non-market part of the public domain in which individuals get together voluntarily to create institutions and organisations.

It is the sphere of active citizenship : here, individuals take up social issues, try to influence the state or make demands on it, pursue their collective interests or seek support for a variety of causes.

It consists of voluntary associations, organisations or institutions formed by groups of citizens. It includes political parties, media institutions, trade unions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), religious organisations, and other kinds of collective entities.

The main criteria for inclusion in civil society are that the ‘‘organisation should not be state-controlled’’, and it should not be a purely commercial profit-making entity.

During Emergency Period: 1975-1977 :

Parliament was suspended and new laws were made directly by the government. Civil liberties were revoked and a large number of politically active people were arrested and jailed without trial. Censorship was imposed on the media and government officials could be dismissed without normal procedures.

The government coerced lower level officials to implement its programmes and produce instant results. The most notorious was the forced sterilisation campaign in which large numbers died due to surgical complications.

This period saw the resurgence of a wide variety of social movements including the women’s, environmental, human rights, and Dalit Movement.

The issues taken up by civil societies are diverse, ranging from tribal struggles to developmental projects, educational reforms , and so on. Civil liberties organisations have been particularly important in keeping a watch on the state and forcing it to obey the law. Among the most significant recent initiatives is the campaign for the Right to Information. 

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