EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD 

Indian Feudalism

Feudalism became an important feature of the political system of North India after the decline of Gupta Empire. This was because the authority of the rulers had been limited in many ways.

• The landed nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labour, and a share of the produce in exchange for military protection. The feudal lords put pressure on the peasants and they took a part of the revenue from the land previously assigned to the king. The aristocracy consisted of the feudatories including the Brahmins. Land grants to the Brahmans were tax free.
• The whole of a kingdom was not granted to feudal holders. The king retained a sizeable area as crown land which he directly administered. However, loss of revenue placed the king politically in a vulnerable position vis-à-vis his feudatories.
• It also led to economic depression of the peasantry. With an increase in the number of intermediaries the peasant was forced to pay taxes additional to the basic land tax.
• The main developments led to feudalism were 
• 1. Feudalism from above
• a). The land grants given to Brahmans and Temples
• b). The land assigned to officers of Bureaucracy and Military instead of paying in cash
• 2. Feudalism from below
• a). The village headmen or kinsmen of Royal dynasty taking control of villages and nearby areas benefiting from the decline of the Kings(state)
• b). The tribal chiefs when assimilated into the mainstream, they gave up the egalitarian tribal set up and emerged as totalitarian lords

Land grants 

Land grants led to hierarchical rights over land and sub-infeudation. The same piece of land had multiple claimants over it with different rights. The Mahipati (the king), Kshetrasvamin (the master of the land), Karshaka (cultivator) and the sub-tenant. This practice gave rise to a hierarchy of landlords, which lived off the surplus produced by the actual cultivators.

The landlord was empowered with the right to evict the peasantry at will and to replace them with new peasants. The donated land or villages were exempted from the interference of soldiers and royal officials.

Landgrants resulted in a relatively closed economy. The residents of donated villages were asked to comply with the order of the beneficiary, besides making over the various kinds of payments. Peasants, artisans and merchants were tied down to their habitations to serve the local masters. In the Deccan and South India, artisans were made over to the temples and monasteries. The attachment of peasants, artisans and merchants to their respective settlements and restrictions on their movements, led to the emergence of a closed economy.

There were regular conflicts between the king and his vassals or between landlords and the peasants over land ownership or tax collection. According to Dharmashastras, the claim based on Rajasasana (royal charter) would override every other claim (based on custom, agreement and religion etc). In other words, a Rajasasana would prevail over dharma, vyavahara and charita. 

Economy

The trade and urban settlements, which were so much prominent features of Indian society started declining from the mid-Gupta period onward. Many important cities (such as Taxila, Kausambi and Pataliputra) ceased to exist after the Gupta period. This decline of urban settlements was not an isolated phenomenon, it seems to have been quite widespread. Trade activities suffered a setback because of various reasons. This is perhaps most clear from the fact that minting and circulation of coins were on a much more limited scale than before.

However, the decline of towns may not mean the immediate overall contraction of the economy but the localisation of economy centred in self-sufficient regions. The base of economy, which earlier was agriculture and urban activities of crafts production and trade, now reduced to only agriculture.

Decline of Trade

Both internal and external trade registered a peak during the early-Gupta Age, when India traded with the Roman Empire, Central Asia and South East Asia. The trade decline set in during the midGupta period, decline of these empires added to the emergence of the Arab and Persian merchants as competitors in trade affected Indian merchants.

Silk and spices were important export items in the Indo-Byzantine trade. The Hellenistic world learnt the art of growing silk worms in the middle of the 6th century AD, resulting in the decline of silk road trade.

Till early Gupta period, India had carried on trade in beads and some other items with some areas of South-East Asia, but after the fourth century A.D. there is no evidence for trade with South East Asia.

The trade contacts with Central Asia and Western Asia via Uttarapath, were disrupted by the Hun invasions.

Domestic Trade- Long distance internal trade suffered owing to the weakening of links between coastal towns and the interior towns and further between towns and villages. The decay of towns and shrinkage in urban production and the decline of trade were related problems.

The rise of  numerous self-sufficient villages dominated by landed intermediary also had adverse effect on trade. The rise of self-sufficient areas (especially villages) was feature of this age, where local needs came to be met locally.

Obviously, trade in basic necessities such as salt, iron artefacts etc. continued. For quite a few centuries large-scale, organised trade was replaced by petty traders, pedlars and trickle trade.

Paucity of Coins- The decline of trade and the grant of land to high functionaries in lieu of money payments reduced the amount of coins in circulation. Use of metallic currency declined in most parts of India. The post Gupta period is marked by the decline of Second Urbanisation (which began in Mahajanpada Age), therefore, the urban trade-based economy gave way to Agrarian rural self-sufficient economy where coins lost its importance and trade was local and in many cases barter, like Jajmani system or in some other currencies like cowries (shells).

The Post Gupta coins, especially in Northern India portrays a very dismal numismatic picture. We find very few silver coins and even rarer gold coins (which were so abundant during the periods of the Kushans and Guptas). Copper coins are found but less in number than earlier periods.

The numismatics, which was prime art form in Gupta Age, seems to have lost its importance and Kings did not resorted to it for glory (however they continued other measures like land-grants etc)

Majority of Post Gupta kingdoms were relatively smaller in size and many did not issued coins at all. Different metals were used in different parts of the country and even in the same area different metals were used, therefore, we do not find any contiguity in the coinage system. 

The Age of Guptas was the Classical Age in many aspects as the artforms were later copied by different regions, giving birth to the regional styles. This happened in coinage too as many Kings tried to imitate the Gupta coinage art of King Portrait on one side and Goddess Portrait on

the other, however, the quality of art as well as metal could not match the Gupta coins. Eg- coins of Shashank Gauda and Samachardeva in Bengal.

In Southern India, many dynasties followed the Punch mark style of pre Mauryan era with symbols of lotus, elephant etc. Eg- coins of Chalukyas, Cholas etc. Although Cholas under Rajaraja and Rajendra issued many portrait coins, however, the coins are much inferior in carving and design than Gupta coins.

There are evidences for prevalence of barter and the use of cowries (shells) as a medium of exchange in daily transactions across India.

Decline of Towns- Decline in trade, paucity of coins and commercial seals indicate economic decline in the urban centres. Therefore, Towns which were active centres of craft production experienced decay and desertion.

The Kushan and Gupta towns in northern India and those associated with the Satavahanas in the Deccan began to decay from the middle of the third or the fourth century.

However, all settlements did not turn rural. In the post-Gupta period seats of administration, military garrisons and religious or pilgrimage centres continued their urban features. Many towns continued to survive as a result of their conversion to centres of pilgrimage. Also, owing to the convergence of several factors some villages converted into towns, owing to their placing as meeting points for a group of rural settlements and develop into larger settlements.

Agrarian Expansion- The evidence suggests late-Gupta and post-Gupta agrarian growth and rural expansion on an unprecedented scale.

Decline of towns led to the migration of a number of skilled artisans into the countryside. Some of them even changed their vocations. This dispersal of technical skills of artisans and craftsmen stimulated agrarian growth in the rural economy.

This period period saw considerable diversity of crops (including cash crops), extended role of metal (especially new iron tools), improved knowledge of manure, better irrigation technologies (like Ghatiyantra), assimilation of tribals in agriculture (via land grants etc)

New type of villages emerged on a large scale during this period.

Brahmadeyas villages- which were inhabited by brahmins.

Agrahara villages- although inhabited by brahmins and non-brahmins, the proprietary right of such villages belonged to the brahmins only, ie. tax of such villages goes to respective Brahmins. In South India such villages were also known as Mangalams. 

Devedana- donated to temples and generally, inhabited by non-brahmanas. The proprietary right of such villages, however, belonged to the Temples. Such villages were more prevalent in South India.

The administrative body/assembely in villages

Mahasabha or Sabha- in Brahmanic settlements.

Ur- in Devadana villages and ordinary villages

Economy of early Medieval times was characterised by - 

Negative changes

1. The emergence of a class of landlords and a class of subjugated peasantry in a rural-agrarian economy. 

2. Decline of trade 

3. Decline of towns

4. Paucity of metallic money.

Positive Changes 

1. The growth of new crops.

2. The widespread construction of irrigational facilities.

3. The increasing awareness about plant and animal diseases

4. The improvements in other aspects of agriculture

Society

Incongruity of Varna hierarchy and social hierarchy- The major economic forces of the period were large scale land grants, decline of trade, commerce and urban life, paucity of metallic money, growing agrarian character of society and the emergence of relatively closed local units of production and consumption.

• On this basis evolved a social structure broadly characterised by a sizable ruling landed aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of impoverished peasantry. This unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and ranks which cut across Varna divisions.
• Importance of land in social status- Land grants and the emerging landed intermediaries, wielding economic power and political authority, modified the varna divided society. The new social groups did not fit in with the four-fold varna system.
• The brahmin landlords gave up their priestly function and diverted their attention to the management of land and people and they started resembling more with the ruling elite than with those who performed only priestly functions.
• The inclusion of the foreign ethnic groups and indigenous tribal chieftains in the Kshatriya varna and the acculturated tribes in the Sudra varna not only swelled their ranks but also transformed the varna divided society. How much land one possessed emerged as the basis for differences in social status which was not homogenously divided between people of same varna. One's position in society did not simply depend on the varna to which one belonged. His social rank came to be connected with his position as a landholder, among different categories of landholders. Therefore, varna hierarchy remained only as a model scheme for the society and the occupational castes came to constitute the functioning social reality. However, the ‘Varna model’ remained relevant because it determined the "purity" and the "impurity" of the castes.
• Social position of Brahmins was further elevated- Brahmins attained various privileges like freedom from death-sentence, exemption form taxes, precedence on the road, lesser punishment for certain offences in comparison with other castes. Many writers have documented the exemption of the Brahmins from capital punishment. The most severe punishment for a Brahmin was banishment. When a Brahman killed a man, the former had only to fast, pray and give alms.
• On the other hand, if somebody killed a Brahmin, he was ought to be greatest sinner and performed the worst crime. No punishment or remorse could wipe off the Brahma’hatya, the greatest crime of those periods.

New Castes- The Gupta and post-Gupta times were characterized by the emergence and spread of new jatis (castes) like the Kayasthas (the scribe castes to record new land titles).

• The norm that the kshatriyas alone could rule forced new ruling houses of various backgrounds to seek kshatriyahood through brahmanic support so as to win popular acceptance and legitimacy for their rule. These new Kshtriya became patrons and the performers of Vedic rituals. Many ruling dynasties in the post-Gupta period emerged from humble origins and subsequently graduated to kshatriya status, most famously Rajputs. Pallavas and Chalukyas of peninsular India, Palas of Bengal and many sub-regional dynasties in Orissa had tribal origins. Bactrian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Hunas etc. were accommodated in the varna system as Vratya Kshitriyas (semi Kshatriya).
• Shreni (Guilds), due to their living (organised in bands or confined hamlets) and being endogamous groups, transformed themselves into Jatis (castes)
• By 9th century AD, traders and members of the rich dominant peasantry were also conferred ruling titles such as ranaka, nayaka and so on. They constituted a part of the upper section of the society and ruling landed elite.
• New castes by assimilating Tribes- The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence of new castes and acculturation (cultural assimilation) of Tribes by land grants to Brahmins in remote areas and emergence of strong Tribes as regional kingdoms who assimilated Brahmanic ways for legitimacy. This acculturation and incorporation of tribes and backward peoples as sudra castes significantly added to the number of new castes, especially mixed castes and untouchable castes.
• By modem estimates, today there are about five thousand castes in India, with around three hundred castes, on an average, in each linguistic state. The beginnings of the formation of many of these castes would certainly go back to the early medieval times.

The Varna-Caste confusion

• Hierarchy emerged within each varna because of the acculturation and incorporation of various groups of people and communities at varying levels. There are also examples of earlier single communities breaking up into many varna and castes. Many a time, a single caste was incorporated into different varna at different parts of country, therefore, one caste is found in one varna at one place and in different varna in different place. This confusion could be traced in the modern times as one can see a same caste is identified with more than one varna or have ambiguity in varna.
• Emergence of Varnasamkara is an important phenomenon, which meant the inter-mixing and/or union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the emergence of mixed castes. However, more than social reality, it is the symbolic and explanation of social disorder.

Change in the position of Vaishyas and Shudras- A sizable section of the shudras were rising in social and economic status after their association with land owning agriculture, and sections of the vaisyas, particularly those at the lower end, underwent fall in their social position.

• Many shudra castes were no longer slaves and servants and emerged as tenants, share-croppers and cultivators.
• During the peak of Indian foreign trade in the post-Mauryan times the vaishyas got identified with urban occupations and towns. In a predominantly agrarian society of the post-Gupta period, the vaishya traders and merchants suffered economic loss and social degradation.
• The social distinction between the vaishyas and the shudras got blurred as the differences in their occupations and standards of living faded away.

The Untouchables- From around the 4rd century AD onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to have intensified and the number of untouchables registered a rise.

• During this period the decline of urban centres resulted in several groups of artisans and craftsmen losing their earlier status and many of them even came to be regarded as untouchables. The backward agriculturists were also condemned to the status of Untouchables. Along with them, hunters, fishermen, butchers, executioners, scavengers and accultured tribesmen appear as untouchables.
• There appeared some Shudra castes also whose position was lower than other castes. There were eight Shudra castes called Ashtashudras, Vyadha, Bhada, Kola, Koncha, Haddi, Doma, Jala, Bagatita, Vyalagrahi and Chandala. These Ashtashudras were called the Antyajas (Vedvyasamriti includes all those who eat cow’s flesh as Antyajas), however, later the number of Antyaja caste increased with time. Chandalas were lowest of the Antyaja. These untouchables were claimed to be removed from Varna society and were labelled as Panchamvarna. Interestingly, a caste hierarchy emerged among Panchamvarna (untouchables) as well.
• In this context of the growing demand for labour the presence of the untouchables as a depressed, dispossessed group of people was an enormous advantage to all other sections of rural society.
• The untouchables did not normally hold land, settled outside the villages and were condemned to menial jobs during slack periods of the year and were available for work during peak periods of agricultural activity. The untouchables thus provided labour and were socially condemned and segregated.

Position of Women- The women's position in society during this period was that of progressive decline.

• The law-books of this time provide for the marriage of women at an early age, most preferably at pre-puberty stage.
• Formal education was denied to them in Shastras and also in practise, however, not in all cases.
• They were generally denied property rights. However, in the case of widows there was some improvement in proprietary rights. The provision for stridhana (wealth of women) introduced in this time means their ownership of movable property like personal jewels, ornaments and gifts.
• Women and property came to be bracketed together with adverse consequences for women's status.
• The joint references to women and sudras in contemporary literature such as the Brihat’samhita amply demonstrates the plight of women. They were debarred from various sacrifices and ceremonies.
• The practice of Sati gained social acceptance during this period. The earliest references to sati date to the later Gupta period and the times of Harsavardhana.

Decline of Buddhism

By the 9th century AD, the decline of Buddhism was very evident, which was although noted by travellers of past centuries but became irreversible by this time. The decline of Buddhism in India, the land of its birth, occurred for a variety of reasons. The decline is first registered by Fa Hien and by the time of Turk arrival it had considerably declined. Although it continued to attract financial and institutional support during this time period by Kings like Harsha, Pallavas and Palas etc. However, Buddhism made a comeback in India in 20th century.

Following are the major reasons behind the decline of Buddhism

• Sectarian conflicts within Buddhism- Early Buddhism had numerous sects, each with its own version of canonical texts and all claiming to be the original word of the Buddha. The texts with the same title show a lot of difference, some minor and some so major that they are different works. Earlier schisms were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about 1st century AD, schisms between sectarian Buddhist Sangha were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too, making them almost different religion following same God.
• Loss of public and royal support for Buddhism- In case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of organisation and the reliance of monks on donations. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of land grant foundations. The rise of the Brahmins and their influence in socio-political process cut the revenue supply needed for Buddhism to survive.
• Gains by competing Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism- Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other Hindu traditions became increasingly popular, and Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state. As the system grew, Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. Gradually, Hindus and Jains occupied sites abandoned by the Buddhist sangha.
• Invasions of India from central Asia- Chinese scholars travelling through the north eastern India began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist Sangha in the north-west parts of Indian subcontinent, especially in the wake of the Hun invasion from central Asia. Huen Tsang wrote that numerous monasteries in northwestern India had been reduced to ruins by the Huns. Mihirakula, who ruled in 6th century in northwestern region suppressed Buddhism and destroyed monasteries as far away as Kaushambi.
• Decline of Urban Centres where Buddhism gained majority of Patronage and the decline of Trade routes which were the arteries by which Buddhism spread into exterior regions
• The rivalry between Hinduism and Buddhism, however, the existence of religious violence between Hinduism and Buddhism in ancient India has been disputed.
• The decadence of Buddhist Monasteries- By mid of 1st millennium AD, Buddhist monks owned property and were actively involved in trade and other economic activity. Monasteries many a times became too rich involved in many vices of the society. I-Tsing, the Chinese pilgrim wrote about declining discipline and indulgence in earthly pleasures such as rich foods, sex and wealth by Buddhist monks inside monasteries.
• However, this point contradicts the theory of cutting of revenue supply or loss of state patronage was behind decline of Buddhism. Many historian opines that the decline of Buddhism may be related to internal organisation and discipline than the economic reasons, wherein the Buddhist monasteries with large land grants focussed on non-material pursuits, self-isolation of the monasteries, loss in internal discipline in the sangha, and a failure to efficiently operate the land they owned.
• The adoption of elitist iconography- Writing in Sanskrit and Chanda style began in Buddhism, which made it as elitist as Brahmanism was in the age of Buddha.
• The waning difference between Buddhism and Hinduism- With the the growth in ritualistic Mahayana Buddhism, and the adoption of Buddhist ideas into Hindu schools, the differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred. The devotional cults of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism likely seemed quite similar to laity, and the developing Tantrism of both religions were also similar
• Re-energised Hinduism via philosophers and Bhakti Movement- Scholars such as Adi Shankar reenergized Hinduism while borrowing Buddhist ideas, also published influential reviews and original texts, established monastery networks, and explained the key differences between Hinduism and Buddhism. He stated the difference to be that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self". The rise in competing Hindu philosophies such as Shankar's Advaita Vedanta, from growth in temples and from innovations of the Bhakti movement, cutting into Buddhist patronage and popular support.
• Turk raids- The iconoclast Muslims gave the final blow to Buddhism in India. Al Beruni talks of Buddhism’s disappearance from Ghazni and medieval Panjab. The Chach Nama records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques. Hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and shrines were destroyed, Buddhist texts were burnt by the Muslim armies, monks and nuns killed during the 12th and 13th centuries in the Gangetic plain’s region. Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji famously destroyed the Panch Mahaviharas of Buddhism. 

Temples

Temples assumed a central place in predominantly agrarian economy of medieval India, especially in South India. Pallava period saw the rise of importance of Temples, the process which further grew under Cholas.

This period saw the construction of large number of Temples patronised by regional kingdom across India, supported by land grants for their regular working. Therefore, these Temple not only had the royal support but also the vast amount of agricultural surplus at their expense.

These temples assumed central role in the social systems.

• They served the banking needs of the people via usury.
• Due to their enormous size, temples offered various employments to a substantial amount of population. The non-Brahmin staff consisted of musicians, dancers, singers, masters of ceremony, carpenters, potters, washer men, garland-makers, palanquin-bearers, administrators, guards and cleaners.
• This led to the multiplication of castes among temple servants, including the devadasis who were dancers and singers.
• Dancers, musicians and other functionaries attached to the temple were given lands and houses for their services. Menial servants were paid wages again in the form of food grains or other consumable items, depending on the importance of their service and rank in the hierarchy.
• In the absence of separate educational institutions, Temples played a great role as the centre of learning which was not only theological in nature but also dealt with the secular studies.
• Devadasi system- Devadasis are also known by various other local terms, such as jogini. It is
• known as basivi in Karnataka, matangi in Maharashtra and Bhavin and Kalavantin in Goa. It is also known as venkatasani, nailis, muralis and theradiyan in other parts of India. During colonial times, reformists worked towards outlawing the devadasi tradition on grounds that it supported prostitution; however, it is a topic of debate whether it was system of prostitution or its decadent form was prostitution.
• The temple thus stood at the centre, creating physical and active space for every aspect of life in the early and medieval periods of Indian history. Above all, it was a symbol of authority, status, political power and social influence.

The emergence of Rajputs

At the age of rising feudalism, war became an important tool of polity where warriors and rulers came from different backgrounds like Central Asia, Indo-Aryans, Aboriginals and Brahmins etc, got assimilated into Hindu religion as Kshatriyas but known as a sub type of Kshatriyas called Rajputs.

There is no agreement among scholars regarding the origin of Rajputs. Traditionally Rajput families hold the view of descent from Solar and Lunar families, however early inscriptions find them to be of varied descent like from Brahmins, like Guhilots of Mewar are of foreign origin, like a Rajput clan named Hun. Their change of occupation led to the change of caste (and Varna), which was not a novel feature in Indian history and happened before. A brahmin family called Mayur-sharman became Kshatriya, Mayurvarman, upon installation as Kings. Such Brahma-Kshatra dynasties (tracing origin from Brahman and Kshatriays) existed in Peninsula in the earlier times.

The four Rajput clans of the Pratihara (Parihars), Parmara (Pawars), Chahmana (Chauhans) and Chalukya (Solankis), not to be confused with the Chalukyas of Deccan, are said to be emerged from a Sacrificial pit near Mt. Abu, therefore called Agnikula. This indicates their purification before becoming Rajputs, maybe from foreign origin or local aboriginal origin (Chandellas are said to be Gonds. converted into Kshatriyas). Bardic tradition holds that there are 36 Rajput clans in total, but the list varies from source to source. 

The Socio-economic factors

A new feature of the land distribution and territorial system in the area of Rajasthan emerged where land is distributed among the royal kinsmen, i.e. the core estate belonged to the eldest son, but younger sons and other members were also given estates for their maintenance (the earliest mention of this was found during the period of Harshavardhana). Therefore, political power was increasingly started to fragment benefitting from weakening of the sovereign above them.

The appearance of Fort system also coincides with the rise of Rajput during the second half of the 1st millennium AD. This fort system was later to become the lynchpin of Rajput polity and defence system along with the focal centre of the surrounding territory.

The areas where the Rajput spread in late 1st millennium AD did not have a long history of the Monarchy or Agrarian economy. In early stages, the control of Rajput kingdoms over the resources was not centralized. The alliances between the emerging clans, in marriages and other political collaborations consolidated the Rajput structure. 

The four Agnikula clans dominated early Rajput polity. Their kingdoms arose from the ruins of Pratihara kingdom. The new Pratihara Rajputs ruled in southern Rajasthan, the Chahamans at Shakambhari(north east Rajasthan), Chalukya in Guajarat and Paramaras in Malwa.

Development of local cultures

The foundation of various kingdoms and fiefdoms whose people were generally confined to them only led the development of localized culture, making India a diverse geographical area.

The Hunas and other foreign elements were absorbed into the larger defined units such as Rajputana. Similarly, Bengal, which was earlier divided into two parts viz. Gauda and Vanga, later the whole region was named after Vanga (subsequently became Banga).

Though the Sanskrit continued to be used by the ruling class at the higher administrative levels, this language later become complex, verbose and ornate. The Apabhramsha, spoken by folk, started to differentiate into proto-Hindi, Proto-Bengali, Proto-Rajasthani proto-Gujarati, Proto-Marathi, ProtoAssamese, Proto-Ordya, Proto-Maithili languages. From the 6th century AD onwards, the linguistic variation became very fast because of lack of inter-regional communication and mobility. In the tribal areas, the Brahmins imposed various forms of Sanskrit on the existing Aryan and Pre-Aryan dialects.

This consequential interaction gave further rise to regional languages. The migrating Brahmins also enriched the regional languages. This resulted in the development of regional scripts and regional grammar.

The inhabitants of the different regions differed in customs, clothing and language. For example, the Kavalayamala (8th century AD) notes the existence of 18 major nationalities and describes the anthropological characters of 16 types of peoples.

Regional Artforms

In the field of art and architecture, this period ushered in a new age marked by regional styles in sculpture and temple architecture, which became particularly prominent in south India from the eighth century onwards. The post-Gupta iconography prominently displays a divine hierarchy, which reflects the pyramidal rank and feudal nature of society, eg- Panchayatana style of temples. The Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Durga became the supreme deities, lording over many other divinities of unequal sizes, i.e. reflection of Feudalism on religion was clearly visible.  

The Mahayajnas and danas (donations) were gradually replaced by a system known as Puja as the prime mode of worship. Puja was interlinked to the doctrine of Bhakti, which became a distinct feature of medieval religion. Along with puja and Bhakti, the tribal acculturation brings tantricism, all of which assimilated into one to give modern Hinduism. 

During the middle first millennium AD, the focal point of the Northern plains shited westwards from Pataliputra to Kannauj (Kanakubjya), especially since the rule of Harshavardhan, and making it a prized possession. Situated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, it was one of the best irrigated areas in the subcontinent. It was closer to North-west which had the trade routes linking India to the Central and West Asia, an important advantage over Patiliputra. Kannuaj was also better linked to the land routes going into the Southern Indian markets and to the water routes going into the Eastern India.

In the Post Gupta times, Kannauj was flocked over by traders and Brahmins alike, looking for centres of exchange and wealthy patrons respectively. The agrarian surplus provided the base for a bustling urban society. The prospect of control over it would not only provide considerable wealth but also legitimacy of being supreme power, situation very similar to that of Delhi during later times.

From 8th to 10th Century AD, various regional powers made recurring attempts to control the doab, however, no one could rule over it for a substantial amount of time making it a bone of contention among them. A long struggle ensued between the three kingdoms of India, ie Rashtrakutas, Gurjara-Pratiharas and Palas. 

• Rashtrakutas, tributary vassals and later successor of Chalukyas, on the other hand were interested in both North as well as in Peninsula. According to Arab sources, Rashtrakutas were the most powerful among the three contesting parties but their multiplicity of interests prevented them being as strong a power as they could have. Apart from the traditional sources of income, they had very profitable Arab trade at their expanse which supported their territorial ambitions.
• The origin of Pratiharas could not be traced exactly. They are said to be descended from Gurjara pastoralists of Rajasthan or from Hunas or from the administrators of regional kingdoms who established their own rule. Later the Pratiharas amalgameted themselves into the Rajputs.
• Palas, ruling over the eastern Ganges plains, had their economic base in the agrarian society of the fertile Ganges delta. The land grants had vastly expanded the lands available for agriculture, providing vast surplus to Palas, which was not available to any former power ever ruled over the area. Apart from this, trade was a major source of income for the Pala kings. They had extensive trade relations from South East Asia. The ports of Pala kingdom acted as midway stops for Chinese traders going to Africa and Arab traders going to South East Asia.

All three kingdoms held Kannuaj with recurring success and failure, but no one could rule it permanently.

The bitter rivalry between Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas took heavy toll on both the powers. Rashtrakutas were ousted by later Chalukyas, a branch of Chalukyas who were uprooted by Rashtrakutas few centuries ago. Rashtrakutas tried to be the power of North and South both, which was not backed by their resources and polity of the time, something which Marathas did with more success in later times.

In north, Pratiharas lingered throughout the 10th century. A Turkish raid to Kannauj in 1018 ended the Pratihara rule. The decline of the Pratihara rule resulted in the emergence of numerous Rajput states.

Palas could not benefit a lot from the decline of Pratiharas as they found themselves under attack of the advancing Chola King Rajendra, in a bid to control the rich trading posts on the Ganges delta. The weakened Pala dynasty was soon uprooted by the Sena dynasty.

Of all the three kingdoms of late first millennium AD, no one had substantial edge of revenues over the other. Therefore, the resources to back the military powers more or less matched in the long run. They were evenly matched, which can be seen in their rapid rise and fall in the relative power dynamics. 

The obsession of Kannauj did not let them consolidate their own kingdoms in the times when local governors and feudatories possessed territorial ambitions of their own.

Kannauj itself could remain as significant for very long time. In the absence of a strong, unchallenged Kingdom ruling over it, and emergence of various smaller imperial centres of regional kingdoms it receded in its economic and political importance. Before its further decline, it was part of Gadhawala kingdom till the end of 12th century, when it will be assimilated to Delhi Sultanate.

Literature

However, the quality of the content was not as high as earlier periods. It was of imitative and reproductive character.

• Naishadhiyacharitam of Shriharsha is the most outstanding epic of this period.
• Rajatarangini of Kalhana is unique as the only known attempt at true history in the whole of surviving Sanskrit literature.
• The Gita Govindam of Jayadeva is known as the most musical song ever written in Sanskrit.
• The famous mathematician Bhaskaracharya flourished in the south in the twelfth century. His Siddhanta-Shiromani comprises four parts- Lilavati, Vijaganita, Grahaganita and Gola. 

The account of Huen Tsang (Xuanzang)

He came to India during time of Emperor Harsha Vardhana. The primary aim of the visit of Huen Tsang to India was to gain knowledge of Buddhism and collect its religious texts. After returning to China, he wrote a detailed description of India during the reign of Harsha in his book Si-yu-ki (Record of the Western Countries). His description, many aspects is contrasting to the details given by Fa-Hien.

• His description has been accepted as the best available source of knowing the administrative, social and cultural condition of India at that time. However, his account of India is not entirely dependable. While mostly it is biased because Huen Tsang used his description as a means to glorify Buddhism and Harsha as its follower. Therefore, it needs to be corroborated and checked with the help of other contemporary sources.
• He gave such a detailed description of political, social, religious and economic life of India as has not been given by any other Chinese traveller.
• He stayed in India for nearly fourteen years and visited places like Taxila, Kashmir, Mathura, Kannauj, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilvastu, Kusinagara, Sarnath, Vaisali, Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Bodha-Gaya and Nalanda (where he spent about five years).
• He had been a guest to Bhaskara Varman, ruler of Kamarupa. From there he was called to the court of Harsha. Harsha called a religious assembly at Kannauj to honour him. Huen Tsang presided over that assembly.
• He also participated in one of the religious assemblies called by Harsha at Prayag after that and left India in 644.

Cities of India

He tells us that the houses were of varied types and were constructed with wood, bricks and dung. The city-streets were circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins while new cities had grown up.

Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj. Sravasti and Kapilvastu had lost their religious importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the centres of Buddhist learning.

Economy

• He gave a long list of Indian fruits and agricultural products.
• India produced the best cotton, silk and woollen cloth at that time and prepared all sorts of garments from them.
• He praised very much the quality of Indian pearls and ivory.
• The Indians prepared and used all types of jewellery and ornaments.
• India had a brisk trade with foreign countries and there were prosperous city- ports on its sea-coast both in the East and the West.
• India exported cloth, sandal-wood, medicinal herbs, ivory, pearls, spices etc. to foreign countries and imported gold, silver and horses.
• He described India as a rich and prosperous country.

Society

• He described caste system to be rigid.
• There was no purdah-system and women were provided education.
• The practice of sati prevailed.
• Common people were simple and honest. They used simple garments and avoided meat, onions and liquor in their food and drinks. 
• They observed high morality in their social and personal lives.
• He described that Indians used cotton, silk and wool for their garments and these were of varied types. 

Education

• He described Indians as lovers of education, literature and fine arts.
• Indians received education between nine and thirty years of age and, in certain cases, all their life.
• Mostly the education was religious and was provided orally.
• Many texts were put in writing and their script was Sanskrit.
• Debates and discussions were the most important means of providing education and also that of establishing superiority over rivals in knowledge.
• He describes Nalanda as a leading University of its time.

Religion

• He agreed that Hinduism was more widely popular in India at that time as compared to Buddhism.
• He described that Brahamanism, Buddhism and Jainism were all popular religions in India. There was complete tolerance among people of all religious faiths and people changed their religions voluntarily.
• Though he did not write that Buddhism was on decline, yet, his description of cities indicates that Buddhism was, certainly, on decline and Brahamanism was progressing.
• Huen Tsang gave description of religious assemblies also which were organised by Emperor Harsha at Prayag (Allahabad) and Kannauj. 

Rule of Harshavardhana

• He described Harsha as a perfect devotee of Buddha.
• Huen Tsang praised emperor Harsha and his administration in detail.
• He described him as a laborious king who travelled far and wide and contacted his subjects personally to look after their welfare and supervise his administration.
• He described that the kingdom was well-governed, free from revolts with very few cases of law-breaking, offenders were given physical punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth from them while the traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom.
• The burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects, they were free from the oppression of the government servants and were, thus, happy. The state used to record its every activity. The main source of income of the state was land-revenue which formed 1/6th of the produce.
• He, however, described that travelling was not very much safe at that time.
• Huen Tsang described that Harsha divided his income into four parts. One part of it was spent on administrative routine of the state, the second part of it was distributed among government employees, the third of it was given to scholars and the fourth part of it was given in charity to Brahamanas and the Buddhist monks.
• Huen Tsang wrote that the army of Harsha consisted of 60,000 war elephants, 50,000 strong cavalry chariots and a 1,00,000 strong infantry.

Other Travellers

• I-tsing (671 - 695 AD) Chinese traveller came to India for Buddhism.
• Al-Masudi (957 AD) Arab Traveller, who gave extensive account of India in his work Muruj ul Zahab. 

The Third Urbanisation

The third phase of urbanization was represented by the rise of towns and cities in the early medieval period, in some parts of the India from the 9th century CE.

Major factors leading to urban growth - 

• Mainly due to agrarian expansion and increase of surplus due to new crops and better knowledge of manure and irrigation (eg. Arghatta/Persian wheel)
• Increased craft production which went beyond the confines of temples or monasteries.
• Emergence of religious centres
• The holding of regular fairs
• Commercial activities centred around ports
• The expansion of rural settlements into of urban centres.
• Initiatives taken by kings and ministers in the establishment of urban centres.

The centre of the commercial activities was the mandapika, a term used for a pavilion though its contextual meaning is derived from the word mandi in Hindi and mandai in Marathi.

There was an emergence of markets and merchants, as reflected in the holding of weekly hatts and rural fairs that became nodal exchange centres, as also a revival of long-distance trade.

There also emerged several grades of traders, such as purasreshthi and rajasreshthi, while merchants, such as vanik, sarthavaha (caravan leader who was the head of the corporation of merchants) and sresthi (chief merchant of the nigama), continued to operate.

Second Urbanisation had an epicentre (upper Ganges and middle Ganges basin), whereas the early medieval urban centres did not have any such epicentre and spread throughout the country.  

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