PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE 

Pre -historic Period

No written records are available for the prehistoric period. However, plenty of archaeological remains like the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements used by pre-historic people are found in different parts of India, which helps to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in this period.

In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the prehistoric period - Radio-carbon dating or other dating method is known as dendro-chronology.

1. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

• - The period before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
• - The Old Stone Age sites are generally located near water sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are:
• -- The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau - Northwest India.
• -- The Siwalik hills - North India.
• -- Bhimbetka - Madhya Pradesh.
• -- Adamgarh hill - Narmada valley.
• -- Kurnool - Andhra Pradesh and
• -- Attirampakkam - near Chennai.
• - In the Old Stone Age, people were called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals.
• - Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite. Large pebbles are often found in river terraces. Their way of life became modified with the passage of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. 

2. Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age

• - Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
• - Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• - The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people.
• - A different type of stone tools are used - tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths.
• - The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued but a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing can be seen in this period. The use of bow and arrow also began during this period.
• - There began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich. Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced.

3. Neolithic Age

• - A remarkable progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age which falls roughly from 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C.
• - Neolithic remains are found in various parts of India. These include the Kashmir valley, Chirand- Bihar, Belan valley- Uttar Pradesh and in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal - Karnataka, Paiyampalli - Tamil Nadu and Utnur - Andhra Pradesh.
• - Characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are:
• -- The practice of agriculture - Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated; Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India.
• -- Domestication of animals - sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.
• -- The manufacture of pottery - Wheels were used to make pottery (used for cooking as well as storage of food grains). 
• -- Improvement in technology of making tools and other equipment used by man like polished stone tools, polished axes, use of mud bricks.
• -- Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead.
• -- Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport.
• -- Clothes made of cotton and wool are used.

4. Metal Age

• The Chalcolithic Period : When copper and bronze came to be used.
• - The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an important development in human civilization. But the use of stone tools and microlithic tools are continued.
• - People began to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures (mostly river valleys). The Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period.
• - Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
• Iron age: The Chalcolithic age is followed by the Iron Age.

• ---- Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas.
• ---- The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone. The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South India. Black and red pottery, iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were found in the burial pits
• ---- Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.

The Harappan Civilization

The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sindh. Both places are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light a civilization, called ‘The Indus Valley Civilization or ‘Indus Civilization’, or ‘Harappan Civilization’. 

Important Sites:

• --- Among the many other sites excavated, the most important are Kot Diji in Sindh, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat. The larger cities are approximately a hundred hectares in size. Mohenjo Daro is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares.

1. Origin and Evolution

• - There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late Harappan.
• - The pre-Harappan stage: is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life.
• - The early-Harappan stage: People lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for the early-Harappan stage.
• - The mature-Harappan stage: The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution.
• - The late-Harappan stage: The decline of the Indus culture started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution. Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.

2. Salient Features of the Harappan Culture

(i). Town Planning

• -- The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks. Harappa,
• -- Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town- brick houses which were inhabited by the common people.
• --- Important features: Large-scale use of burnt bricks, absence of stone buildings, underground drainage system which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
• --- Great bath: The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual bathing site.
• --- The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries.

(ii). Economic life

• --- There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade.
• ---- Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.
• --- Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers.
• ------ Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft. 
• ------ Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. 
• ------- Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black painted pottery is found. 
• ------- Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.
• --- Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran. Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products. The trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of the Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia. The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport.

(iii). Social Life

• ---- The dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment and the other lower garment. The use of cosmetics was common.
• ---- Beads were worn by men and women. Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and finger rings were worn by women. These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones.
• ---- Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at Mohenjodaro.
• ---- Spindles, needles, combs, fish hooks, knives are made of copper.
• ---- Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls and dice were used for games.
• ---- Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes.
• ---- There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.

(iv). Arts

• ---- Figures of men and women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
• ---- Dancing Girl: The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
• ---- Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture.
• ---- Pottery: The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted with various designs and colours. The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock. 

(v). Script

• ---- The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The script was mostly written from right to le.
• ----- In a few long seals the boustrophedon method – writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines was adopted.
• ----- Scholars provide different views connecting the Harappan script with Dravidian or Brahmi; but the mystery of the Harappan script still exists.

(vi). Religion

• ---- From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets- an idea on the religious life of the Harappans.
• ---- Pasupati seal: The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet.
• ---- The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. 
• ---- In later times, Linga worship was prevalent. 
• ---- Trees and animals were also worshipped by the Harappans.
• ---- They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.

(vii). Burial Methods

• ---- The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans.
• ---- Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
• ---- At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear evidence for the practice of Sati.
• ---- Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. 

Decline of the Harappan Culture

• Various theories have been postulated for the cause of decline.
• Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes.
• Invasion of Aryans: The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this region.  

Share

& Comment

Tweet