THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The background of the growth of Bhakti movement in India
The bedrock of the Indian social system during the later ancient period was the ‘Varna’ system which stratified the society into 4 groups and the vertical mobility of an individual across these groups was virtually impossible (however one cannot reject it completely).
The system of various ‘Jatis’ made the social structure lot more complex. The jatis were not the simple sub division of Varnas but can be seen more as an occupational group.
The most oppressive feature of the social system was ‘Untouchability’ and the victims were obviously willing to adopt anything that can help them out of it.
The various sects across the country were tied from the different religious books which were followed by the sect to the last word. The rituals and ceremonies of such sects were not only burdensome but also were devised to concentrate the wealth in the hands of elites of the society.
The later ancient period was marked with the changing economic position of the jatis and communities at the lower stratum of the society. Among them were the weavers of south India who were associated with the temples.
This improvement in the economic conditions encouraged their social aspirations too. However, unlike the traditional elitist groups they cannot and did not tried to place themselves at exalted positions in the scriptures and therefore a more socially mobile way grew popular among them which was Bhakti.
A caveat is needed in understanding the Bhakti that it did not remained a movement free of varna rigidities and with the incorporation of Brahmanic ‘Acharyas’ this movement too was not as utopian as one may think it to be.
The widespread popularity of the monotheistic movement of Kabir, Nanak, Dhanna, Pipa etc. can be explained fully only in the context of certain significant socio-economic changes in the period following the Turkish conquest of Northern India.
The Turkish ruling class, unlike the Rajputs, lived in towns. The extraction of large agricultural surplus led to enormous concentration of resources in the hands of the ruling class. The demands of this resource-wielding class for manufactured goods, luxuries and other necessaries led to the introduction of many new techniques and crafts on a large scale. This, in turn, led to the expansion of the class of urban artisans in the 13th and 14th centuries.
The growing classes of urban artisans were attracted towards the monotheistic movement because of its egalitarian ideas as they were now not satisfied with the low status accorded to them in traditional Brahmanical hierarchy.
It has been pointed out that some groups of traders like the Khatris in the Punjab, who benefited directly from the growth of towns, urban crafts production and expansion of markets, were also drawn into the movement for the same reason.
The popularity of the monotheistic movement was the result of the support it obtained from one or more of these different classes of the society. It is one or more of these sections which constituted the social base of the movement in different parts of Northern India.
In Punjab, the popularity of the movement did not remain confined to urban classes, it acquired a broader base by the incorporation of the Jat peasants in its ranks. The support extended by the Jats of the Punjab to Guru Nanak's movement ultimately contributed to the development of Sikhism as a mass religion.
The historiography of Bhakti movement
The scholars are deeply divided on the origin of Bhakti movement. Was it born out of the Aryan and non Aryan belief system (Hinduism) or was it the direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in India.
The former view states that the movement had started from the time of Shankaracharya who established a logical monistic system and laid emphasis on attaining salvation through knowledge. Also the Upanishads contains a lot of philosophical discussions over the monism and futility of social segregation and rituals. Earlier Bhakti saints of south India too precedes the arrival of Islam.
The other view says it was both the outcome of the penetration of Islamic ideals and the reaction of the growth of Islam in India. To escape from tyranny of caste system, a large number of lower caste Hindus were embracing Islam. The saints reduced the rigors of caste system to pave the way for retention of such groups in Hinduism. It was the monotheistic Islam which was the inspiration behind the Bhakti movement. Islam did influence the Bhakti cults, especially later ones.
Nirguna Bhakti saints such as Kabir and Nanak picked up some of their ideas from Islam. These include their non-compromising faith in one God, their rejection of incarnation, attack on idolatry and the caste system. But they did not uncritically borrow from Islam and rejected many elements of orthodox Islam.
The Saguna Bhakti movements, on the other hand, cannot be taken as influenced from Islam as they neither denounced idolatry and the caste system nor the theory of incarnations.
Though the Sufism and the Nirguna (monotheistic) movements were historically independent of each other, they grew remarkable similarities in many of their basic ideas, including their common rejection of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies. The interaction between them, however indirectly, must have given impetus to both of them.
Max Weber even claims that the idea of Bhakti as means and condition of salvation was borrowed from Christianity.
It is safe to say that the Bhakti movement started more due to social and economic changes rather than due to contact with some other religion. However, the changes in the meantime are certainly due to inspiration and reaction from other religions.
The Southern Indian Bhakti movement
The Alvar saints (Vaishnava Saints) and Nayanar saints (Shaiva saints) of South India spread the doctrine of Bhakti among different sections of the society irrespective of caste and sex between 7th and the 10th century.
The Alvar Saints through their hymns worshipped Vishnu and his avatars in love and ecstasy. The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha which they sung at Divya Desams (sacred shrines).
The Nayanars Saints were a group of 63 saints devoted to Shiva. Their hymns were later compiled in a twelve-volume compendium called Thirumurai.
Some of these saints came from the ‘lower’ castes and some were women. Women like Andal (Alvar) and Karaikal Ammaiyar (Nayanar) composed many songs in praise of Gods.
They dispensed with rituals and traversed the region several times, singing, dancing and advocating Bhakti.
The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil language and not Sanskrit for preaching and composing devotional songs. All these features gave the movement a popular character.
In South Bhakti movement was not divided into Nirguna and Saguna streams (in fact it was totally Saguna Bhakti)
The South Indian Bhakti movement had following limitations.
It never consciously opposed Brahmanism or the Varna and caste systems at the social level.
The ideological and social foundations of caste system were not challenged by the South Indian saint poets.
It was integrated with the caste system and the lower castes continued to suffer from various social disabilities.
There was no elimination of Brahmanic rituals such as the worship of idols, recitation of the Vedic mantras and pilgrimages to sacred places.
The Buddhists and Jains were its main targets, not the Brahmans.
The Brahman dominated temples played an important role in the growth of South Indian Bhakti movement.
Ultimately, after the movement reached its climax in the tenth century, it was gradually assimilated into the conventional Brahmanic religion.
However, South Indian Bhakti movements made many achievements on social front.
The South Indian Bhakti movement succeeded in championing the cause of religious equality and, consequently, the Brahmans had to accept the right of the low caste to preach, to have access to Bhakti as a mode of worship and to have access even to the Vedas.
They won over many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism both of which by then became rigid and formal religions.
These saint-poets simultaneously resisted the domination of the orthodox Brahmins by making bhakti accessible to all without any caste and sex discrimination.
It stressed on bhakti as the superior mode of worship, which made religion lot less cumbersome.
The inclusion of women in religion was a significant step, however, it was more ritual than social.
Bhakti Movement in Northern India
Bhakti as a religious concept means devotional surrender to a personally conceived Supreme God for attaining salvation.
The origin of this doctrine has been traced to both the Brahmanic and Buddhist traditions of ancient India and to various scriptures such as the Gita.
However, it was for the first time in South India between the seventh and tenth century that Bhakti grew from a mere religious doctrine into a popular movement based on religious equality and broadbased social participation.
The next spurt of the movement arrived in the Eleventh century, when it was revived as a philosophical and ideological movement by a series of wandering scholars or Acharyas, beginning with Ramanuja.
The Bhakti movement had a great bearing on Indian society, culture, religion and literature. A large number of mystics and saint-poets took to writing and social reform.
Almost all of them were Sadhakas (meditators) and wanderers in the name of God and in the service of the people. They were often opposed to the establishment, and all authoritarian monastic order.
All of them claimed relevance for religion in social life. Their discontent against the contemporary society, priests, ruling class and their sincere effort for scholarly inquiry are clearly discernible in their writings.
They generally protested against authority of the "four pillars" of the contemporary society.
1. Social structure (i.e. caste, untouchability, low status of Sudras and women and their deprivation of knowledge).
2. The intellectual hegemony of the Sanskrit language (almost all of their works are in vernacular literature).
3. The religious impositions and its various externalities like priesthood, rituals, pilgrimage and idol-worship.
4. They raised their voice against the political authority and exploitation of the ruling class.
The nature of their protest can be understood better with a socio-cultural background of the period. The scriptures remained entirely under the domination of Sanskrit, which served the official and professional language of a minority group in society that had monopolised education.
It has been pointed out that as the popular Bhakti movement could not take root in Northern India before the Turkish conquest because the socio-religious milieu was dominated by the Rajput-Brahman alliance which was hostile to any heterodox movement. The advent of Islam with the Turkish conquest caused a setback to the power and prestige commanded by the Brahmans.
The Turks deprived the Brahmans of their temple wealth and state patronage. Thus the Brahmans suffered both materially and ideologically. The loss of power and influence by the Brahmans and the new political situation ultimately created conditions for the rise of the popular monotheistic movements and other Bhakti movements in Northern India.
The Brahmins, besides performing religious ceremonies, acted as the foci of culture. It was they who held out to the people the immense benefits of listening to the Puranas.
The Bhakti cult was extremely popular as it laid stress on issues like egalitarianism, unity of God, dignity of man's actions, simple devotion and protest against ritualism and priest-hood. All the schools of thought belonging to the genre of Bhakti believed in the existence of a God supernaturally revealed to man. The chief attribute of this movement was the attitude of the soul with regard to the Supreme Being.
Each one of the Bhakti movement movements had a historical context of its own and its own peculiarities. In view of these wide and basic differences among various Bhakti movements, they must be discussed individually in order to clearly bring out the characteristics of each one of them and also to discover elements of unity and diversity among them.
Bhakti movement was never a single movement except in the broad doctrinal sense of a movement which laid emphasis on Bhakti and religious equality. Each one of them had its own regional identity and socio-historical and cultural contexts.
Prominent Vaishnava Acharyas
In the 11th century, Ramanuja revived the waning Bhakti movement started in South India. He gave philosophically tried to establish a careful balance between orthodox Brahmanism and popular Bhakti which was open to all.
Though he did not support the idea of the lower castes having access to the Vedas, he did advocated Bhakti as a mode of worship accessible to all including the Sudras and even the outcasts. While propagating Bhakti, he did not observe caste distinctions and even tried to eradicate untouchability.
Nimbarka, a Telugu Brahman (lived in Vrindavan), a younger contemporary of Ramanuja, believed in total devotion to Krishna and Radha.
Another South Indian Bhakti philosopher was Madhava (13th century). Like Ramanuja, he did not dispute orthodox Brahmanical restriction of the Vedic study by the Sudras. He believed that the Bhakti provided an alternative mode of worship to the Sudras.
The next prominent Vaishnava Acharyas were Ramananda (late 14th century) and Vallabhacharya (late 15th century). Both of them lived in North India during the Sultanate period and gave a new orientation to the Vaishnava Bhakti.
Ramananda was described as the bridge between the Bhakti movement of the South and the North. He opined that Islam is in action against Hindu society, not only politically but also religiously and Hindu society is seeking refuge in the shell of orthodoxy.
His movement offered generous recognition to the spiritual and social needs of the common people. As a reformer, he was nearer to the spirit of age than Ramanuja. He made considerable relaxation of the caste rules in respect of religious and social matters.
He popularized religion by using vernaculars instead of Sanskrit, which socially and linguistically takes religion to the common people. He also preferred regional gods over the traditional gods.
He avoided both ‘Karma-marg’ and ‘Gyana-marg’ and held that forms of worship are superfluous and Bhakti-marg (supreme devotion) is to simply keep uttering the God’s name. Therefore, he paid no emphasis on rituals and pilgrimages. Many of his disciples were cobblers, weavers and peasants.
The ideology and principles of Bhakti movement
There arose during the Sultanate period (13th to 15th century) many popular socio-religious movements in North and East India, and Maharashtra.
Emphasis on Bhakti and religious equality were two common features of these movements.
Almost all the Bhakti movements of the Sultanate period have been related to one South Indian
Vaishnava Acharya or the other (exception being, monotheistic movements of Kabir, Nanak and other low caste saints). For these reasons, many scholars believe that the Bhakti movements of the Sultanate period were a continuation or resurgence of the older Bhakti movement.
The saints of Bhakti movement were generally non-sectarian and had no desire to set up a separate sect of their own.
They had no blind faith in any sacred scriptures, rituals and ceremonies. The majority of them condemned idolatry and emphasized on the loving relationship between the devotee and his personal god. Bhakti for them was single minded, uninterrupted and extreme devotion to God without any ultimate motive. The approach to God is to be made by personal love and it requires a purification of body and mind from all sins which could not be done without the help of a Guru.
It was a reformist movement by purging all evil practices like the rigors of caste and image worship in Hindu religion.
They discarded rituals and sacrifices as modes of worship. Instead, they emphasized the purity of heart and mind as also kindness and love to all as the simple way to the realization of God.
They also discarded the castes, creed and gender-based discrimination in the society.
Similarity in Southern and Northern Bhakti movements
There are undoubtedly striking similarities between the older Bhakti tradition of South India and various Bhakti-movements that flourished in the Sultanate and Mughal periods.
Like the South Indian Bhakti movement, the Vaishnava Bhakti movements of Northern and Eastern India and Maharashtra, though egalitarian in the religious sphere, never denounced the caste system, the authority of Brahmanical scriptures and the Brahmanical privileges as such.
Consequently, like the South Indian Bhakti, most of the Vaishnava movements of the later period were ultimately assimilated into the Brahmanical religion, though in the process of interaction, the latter itself underwent many changes.
Various streams of Bhakti Movements
Kabir's notion of Bhakti was not the same as that of the medieval Vaishnavism saints such as Chaitanya or Mirabai.
The historical context of Maharashtra Bhakti was different from that of the Bengal Vaishnavism or North Indian Bhakti movement of Ramanand, Vallabha, Surdas and Tulsidas.
Among all the Bhakti movements, the popular monotheistic movements of Kabir, Nanak, Raidas and other lower caste saints stand out fundamentally different.
Popular Monotheistic Movement and Vaishnava Bhakti Movement arose in Northern India at the same time, that is, in the centuries following the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and advent of Islam in that part of the country. However, the causes and sources of the two movements and the factors exerting influence on them were quite diverse.
Nirguna Bhakti and Saguna Bhakti-The Bhakti exponents can be divided into two broad groups on the basis of the conception of God.
Nirguna Bhakti
The Nirguna Bhakti believes that God does not have any form and therefore do not believe in idol worship or reincarnations and emphasis on individual penance etc.
The Nirguna Bhakti had its base in towns and qasbas and rarely in villages.
The lower castes on the arrival of the Turks and urbanisation and resulting improvement of economy benefited most, therefore instead of imitating the orthodox elements of religion, moved towards a more democratized form of worship which is Nirguna Bhakti. This is the reason it was more practiced in newly settled social centers and the urban centers.
Nirguna Bhakti emerged due to the improvement of the economic conditions of the traditionally disadvantaged castes.
Therefore, the Nirguna Bhakti advocated for the domestic life and the participation in production instead of ascetic life.
Its basic tenets are-
Belief in one Supreme god.
Self-surrender to god.
Faith in guru (master).
No belief in caste system, idol worship and ritualism.
No attachment to any particular language.
Monotheistic Movements of Nirguna Bhakti
Kabir (1440-1518) started the earliest monotheistic movement, spending the greater part of his life in Banaras (Kashi). He belonged to a family of weavers, who converts to Islam.
The monotheistic saints who succeeded him either claimed to be his disciples or respectfully mention him. His verses were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth in large numbers than those of other monotheists.
Raidas (or Ravidas) most probably belonged to the generation next to Kabir's. He was a tanner by caste. He also lived in Banaras and was influenced by Kabir's ideas.
Dhanna was a fifteenth century Jat peasant from Rajasthan. Other prominent saints of the same period were Sen (a barber) and Pipa.
Guru Nanak (1469-1539) preached his ideas much in the same way as Kabir and other monotheists, but due to various developments later his teachings led to the emergence of a religion, Sikhism. He belonged to a caste of traders called Khatri and was born in a village in Punjab now known as Nankana Sahib. The hymns composed by him were incorporated in the Adi Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjan in 1604.
Features of Monotheistic Movements
The teachings of all the saints who are associated with the monotheistic movement have certain common features which give the movement its basic unity
Most of the monotheists belonged to the lower castes and were aware that there existed a unity of ideas among themselves. In their verses they mention each other and their predecessors in such a way as to suggest a harmonious ideological affinity between them.
All the monotheists were influenced in one way or another and in varying degrees by the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti and the Sufism. The monotheistic movement represents the synthesis of elements from these three traditions.
For the monotheists, there was only one way of establishing communion with God, it was the way of personally experienced Bhakti. They believed in only one God, which is non-incarnate, nirankar (formless), akal (eternal) and alakh (ineffable).
The monotheistic Bhakti, was nirguna Bhakti and not Saguna which was the case with the vaishnavites who believed in various human incarnations of God. The monotheists adopted the notion of Bhakti from the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition, but gave it a nirguna orientation
The monotheists followed a path which was independent of both dominant religions of the time, Hinduism and Islam. They denied their allegiance to either of them and criticised the superstitions and orthodox elements of both the religions
The monotheists composed their poems in popular languages. The monotheistic saints preferred this common language to their own native dialects because they considered it fit for the propagation of their non-conformist ideas among the masses in various regions.
The monotheists also made use of popular symbols and images to propagate their teachings. Their utterances are expressed in short verses which could be easily remembered.
Most of the monotheistic saints were not ascetics. They led worldly life and were married. They lived and preached among the people. They had aversion to and disdain for professional ascetics, and continued to pursue their family professions.
Despite the widespread popularity that the teachings of monotheists enjoyed among the masses, the followers of each one of the major figures in the monotheistic movement like Kabir, Raidas and Nanak gradually organized themselves into exclusive sectarian orders called panths such as Kabir panth, Raidasi panth, Nanak panth, etc.
Saguna Bhakti
The saguna Bhakti stressed on the worship of God in human form, mainly Rama and Krishna.
It emphasises on idol worship, incarnations and singing of devotional songs etc.
It had a base in both rural as well as urban centres.
It was popular in the traditionally well off groups, however, did not confine only to them and trickled down to the masses.
Later in the 17th century the wave of Saguna Bhakti reappeared with greater force and prevailed over Nirguna Bhakti.
Also the orthodox elements of the Hindu religion felt disenchanted with Nirguna Bhakti supported the Saguna Bhakti.
Its basic tenets are-
Belief in a particular form of god.
No belief in caste system and rituals.
Belief in idol worship.
Popularisation of local languages.
Movements of Saguna Bhakti
The doctrine of Bhakti is fully developed in the most famous of the Puranas, The Bhagvata Purana, composed around the 9th century.
Its most important feature is its emphasis on the Bhakti of Vishnu in his various incarnations, especially in the form of Krishna.
The Bhagavata accepts the orthodox Brahmanical theory of the origin of the varna system but does not accept the superiority of the Brahmans simply on the basis of their status or birth. For it, Bhakti is the main criteria.
It has been pointed out that Bhagavata Purana is the link between various Vaishnava Bhakti movements of the medieval period.
Ramananda (14th century) was the most prominent scholar saint of the Vaishnava Bhakti in Northern India during this period. He lived in South India in the early part of his life but later settled in Banaras. He is considered to be the link between the south Indian Bhakti tradition and North Indian Vaishnhva Bhakti.
Another prominent Vaishnava preacher in the Sultanate period was Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahman of the late 15th and early 16th century. He was the founder of Pushtimarg (way of grace) which became the basis of Shuddhdvaita. He advocated Krishna Bhakti. Famous Krishna Bhakti saint-poet, Surdas (1483 - 1563) and seven other Krishna Bhakti poets were believed to have been the disciples of Vallabha.
Tulsidas (1532-1623) championed the cause of Rama Bhakti while Surdas (1483-1563), Mira Bai (1503-73) and many others popularised Krishna Bhakti.
Chaitanya (1486-1533) was the most prominent Vaishnava saint of Bengal Bhakti movement. He popularized Krishna-Bhakti in many parts of Eastern India.
The advent of Chaitanya marks the shifting of the focus of the Bengal Vaishnava Bhakti from devotional literary compositions to a full-fledged reform movement with a broad social base.
Chaitanya disregarded all distinctions of caste, creed and sex to give a popular base to KrishnaBhakti.
He popularized the practice of ‘Sankirtan’ or group devotional singing accompanied by ecstatic dancing.
However, Chaitanya did not give up traditional Brahamanical values altogether. He did not question the authority of the Brahmans and scriptures.
He upheld the caste prejudices of his Brahman disciples against the "lower" caste disciples.
But Chaitanya's movement had a great impact on Bengali society.
His disregard for caste distinctions in the sphere of devotional singing promoted a sense of equality in Bengali life.
Like other Vaishnava Bhakti movements, the Maharashtra Bhakti tradition drew its basic inspiration from that of the Bhagavata Purana.
Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer Bhakti saint of Maharashtra. He wrote an extensive commentary on the Bhagavad Gita popularly called Jnanesvari. This was one of the earliest works of Marathi literature and served as the foundation of Bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. He was the author of many hymns called abhanga (devotional poetry sung in praise of the Hindu god Vitthala (Vithoba), incarnation of Vishnu).
He taught that the only way to attain God was Bhakti and in Bhakti there was no place for caste distinctions.
Namdev (1270-1350) belonged to the tailor caste. He is considered to be the link between the Maharashtrian Bhakti movement and North Indian monotheistic movement. He lived in Pandharpur but travelled to North India including the Punjab. His Bhakti songs have also been included in the Adi Granth.
In Maharashtra other prominent Bhakti saints were Eknath (1533-99) and Tukaram (1598- 1650).
In Gujarat, Bhakti was preached by the Vallabha sect of Vallabhacharya and another important saint, Narsimha Mehta. The Vallabha sect became popular among merchants and landowners of Gujarat.
In Assam, Shankaradeva (1449-1568) introduced Bhakti both in the Brahmputra valley. He preached absolute devotion to Vishnu or his incarnation, Krishna. Monotheistic ideas influenced his concept of
Bhakti which came to be known as the ‘eka-sarana-dharma’('religion of seeking refuge in one'). He made some significant innovations in the devotional practice such as inclusion of dance-drama-music form in the preaching of Bhakti. He also founded the institution of ‘satra’ which means a sitting during which people of all classes assembled for religious as well as social purposes.
Shaiva Bhakti flourished in Kashmir in the 14th century. Most prominent of the Shaiva Bhakti saints was a woman, Lal Ded (Lalleshwari).
Limitations
It has been argued that the Bhakti movements of medieval India represented the sentiments of the common people against feudal oppression.
Sometimes the medieval Bhakti movements are seen as the Indian counterpart of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. However, there is nothing in the poetry of the Bhakti, saints to suggest that they represented the class interests of the peasantry against the surplus-extracting feudal state.
The Vaishnava Bhakti saints broke away from orthodox Brahmanical order only to the extent that they believed in Bhakti and religious equality. Normally, they continued to subscribe to many basic principles of orthodox Brahmanism.
The more radical Monotheistic saints rejected orthodox Brahmanical religion altogether, but even they did not call for the overthrow of the state and the ruling class.
For these reasons, the Bhakti movements cannot be regarded as an Indian variant of the European Protestant Reformation which was a far greater social upheaval linked to the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism.
This, however, does not mean that the Bhakti saints were indifferent to the living conditions of the people.
They used images of daily life and always tried to identify themselves in one way or another with the sufferings of the common people.
It was a cultural movement, therefore, to blame it for not bringing substantial change in the lives of masses is an unjust criticism. Unlike Protestantism, neither Indian society had conditions of Southern Britain to bring any great Economic change, nor did it had the state patronage as given by North German states.
Legacy
Many of the current practices of popular Hinduism such as repetition of divine names, emphasis on the company of saints and community devotional singing can be traced to medieval Bhakti movements.
The Bhakti Movement resulted in as a great literary wave. The preachers did not preach in Sanskrit, but in the mother tongues of the common people, therefore contributing to the growth of modem vernacular languages.
Emergence of organized religious communities like the Sikhs and evolution of various sects or Panths.
The Bhakti Movement was not a movement of the wise few, but of the wider mass. It is said that after Buddhism, the Bhakti cult saw the next most popular religious awakening.
The movement supplied the incentive of social reforms in Hindu society. The caste system became less rigid. Social differences got reduced. Hatred of man for man received a severe blow. A sense of social unity developed. Orthodox religious practices lost merit and religion received a simpler form as devotion gave an easier meaning to it.
The distance between Islam and Hinduism got reduced. Instead of quarrelling over outer things, Hindu and Muslims understood the inner meaning of their religions. While the Hindus paid respect to the Muslim Saints, the Muslims enjoyed the Hindu ceremonies.
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