THE RISE OF MAGADHA  AND ALEXANDER’S INVASION  

Independent Kingdoms in North India

• In the beginning of the 6th century B.C., the northern India consisted of a large number of independent kingdoms.
• There was a concentration of monarchies on the Gangetic plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills of the Himalayas and in north-western India. Some of the republics( all decisions were by a majority vote) consisted of only one tribe like the Sakyas, Licchavis and Mallas.
• The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’(Jain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen kingdoms). They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja.
• In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated. Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

1. Vatsa

• The Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana. He strengthened his position by entering into matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and Magadha. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

2. Avanti

• The capital of Avanti was Ujjain. The most important ruler of this kingdom was Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism. The successors of Pradyota were weak and later this kingdom was taken over by the rulers of Magadha. 

3. Kosala

• Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. His position was strengthened by the atrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha

4. Magadha

• Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical(between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley-fertile soil) and strategic(iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya ) advantages. These made her rise to imperial greatness.
• Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.

i). Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)

• Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances(with the families of kosala, vaishali and madra-of punjab). This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of Magadha northwards to the borders of Nepal.
• Bimbisara also undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his empire. He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed that kingdom.
• Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim him as their supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gis to the Buddhist Sangha.

ii). Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)

• The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaishali. This had increased his power and prestige. This war(vaishali) lasted for about sixteen years, it was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
• Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Bharhut.
• According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas and viharas. He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon aer the death of the Buddha.
• The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas.
• Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Sisunaga. Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Sisunaga dynasty came to power.

5. Sisunaga dynasty

• The genealogy and chronology of the Saisunagas are not clear. Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the Magadha Empire. Aer Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka.
• During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali. Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty.

6. Nandas

• Nanda dynasty conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic basin and in North India.
• Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda dynasty. He uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India and assumed the title ekarat. The Puranas speak of the extensive conquests made by Mahapadma.
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas.
• According to the Buddhist tradition, Mahapadma Nanda ruled about ten years. He was succeeded by his eight sons, who ruled successively.
• The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. He kept the Magadha empire intact and possessed a powerful army and enormous wealth. The enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet Mamulanar. The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda dominions and the general prosperity of the country must have brought to the royal treasury enormous revenue.
• The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule. It was during this time that Alexander invaded India.

Persian And Greek Invasions

1. Persian Invasions

• Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C): Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenid Empire. He was the first conqueror who led an expedition and entered into India. He captured the Gandhara region. All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute. His son Cambyses had no time to pay attention towards India.
• Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.): Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and Sindh. This region became the 20th Satrapy of his empire. It was the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenid Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore the Indus.
• Xerxes (465-456 B.C.): Xerxes utilized his Indian province to strengthen his position. He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his opponents. But they retreated aer Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece. Aer this failure, the Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy in India. However, the Indian province was still under their control.
• Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330 B.C. It is evident that the control of Persians slackened on the eve of Alexander’s invasion of India. 

2. Effects of the Persian Invasion

• The Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of Indo-Iranian commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for Alexander’s invasion.
• The use of the Kharosthi script, a form of Iranian writing, became popular in northwestern India and some of Asoka’s edicts were written in that script.
• The influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas, particularly the monolithic pillars of Asoka and the sculptures found on them.

Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)

Alexander from Macedonia invaded India. On the eve of his invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading kings were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. There were many republican states like Nysa.

1. Causes of the Invasion

• Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia aer the death of his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered the whole of Persia by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C. He also aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost Persian Satrapy of India.
• The writings of Greek authors like Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander.

2. Battle of Hydaspes

• In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats. He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander.
• Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus and the famous battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of Karri. It was a well-contested battle.
• Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince, treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne. 
• Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes. He wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley. But he could not do so because his soldiers refused to fight. Alexander could not persuade them and therefore decided to return.
• He divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under his governors. His retreat began in October 326 B.C. and the return journey was not free from ordeals. On his way he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.

3. Effects of Alexander’s invasion

• The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political unification of north India under the Mauryas.
• Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece. The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West Asia.
• His authority in the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maury. 

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