THE VEDIC CULTURE 

Decline Of Harappans And The Rise Of Aryans

The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C. Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit entered north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.

As they were mainly cattle keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures.

Initial settlements- valleys of the north-west, the plains of the Punjab, Indo-Gangetic plains(later). By the 6th century B.C, they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta.

This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).

1. Original Home of the Aryans

• Different scholars have identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia.
• Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations.
• They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language-Sanskrit.

2. Vedic Literature

• The term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’.
• The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
• i). The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise of various gods.
• ii). The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice.
• iii). The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it.
• iv). The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals. 
• Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana(by valmiki) and Mahabharata(by vedavyas).
• a). The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony.
• b). The Upanishads are philosophical texts- like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature.
• c). The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices.

Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)

• During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus region.
• The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi.
• The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.

1. Political Organization

• a) The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
• b) Families together → Kinship → Forms village or grama. The leader of grama - Gramani. 
• c) Group of villages called Visu→ headed by Vishyapathi.
• d) The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
• e) There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king.
• f) Polity: - Monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest.Senani or commander of the army in his administration. Sabha- council of elders and Samiti - general assembly of the entire people.

2. Social Life

• The society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi. 
• Monogamy was generally practiced, while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.  
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
• Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool.
• A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women.
• Wheat and barley; milk and its products like curd and ghee; vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal.
• Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite pastimes.
• The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the later Vedic period.

3. Economic Condition

• The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing.
• When they permanently settled in North India they began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation.
• Carpentry- the availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.
• Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron.
• Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen fabrics were made.
• Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
• The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
• Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as important means of transport. Tradeinitially barter system, later - gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions.

4. Religion

• The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder).
• There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas.
• There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. 

Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)

• The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains.
• Important development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
• Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas.
• After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya.
• Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms.
• The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India).

1. Political Organization

• Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
• Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period.
• The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position like, Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha(horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
• A large number of new officials were involved in the administration like, the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger in addition to the existing officials.
• At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period.

2. Economic Condition

• Iron was used extensively - to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation.
• Agriculture became the chief occupation - Barley, rice and wheat were grown. Knowledge of manure was improved. 
• Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress.
• In addition to internal trade, foreign trade became extensive.
• - Familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon.
• - A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence.
• - Vaisyas also carried  on  trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas.
• Gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.

3. Social Life

• The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period.
• Higher classes - Brahmana, and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and Shudra.
• Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this period.
• Women: In the family, the power of the father increased and no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered  inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According to Aitareya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges. 

4. Religion

• Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance.
• Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased.
• Priesthood became a profession and a  hereditary one. Towards the end of this period there was a strong reaction against  priestly domination and against sacrifices and rituals.
• The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices.
• The authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation. 

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