THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Mughals called themselves Timurid or Gurkaniya. They never seek legitimacy from Caliphs, therefore, were not Sultans but assumed titles like Badshah or Shehenshah.
List of Mughal Emperors
1. Babur (1526-1530)
2. Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556)
3. Akbar (1556-1605)
4. Jahangir (1605-1627)
5. Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
6. Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
7. Bahadur Shah(1707-1712)
8. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)
9. Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
10. Rafi ud-Darajat (February 1719-June 1719)
11. Shah Jahan II (Rafi ud-Daulah) (June 1719-September 1719)
12. Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)
13. Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754)
14. Azizuddin, Alamgir II (1754-1759)
15. Shah Jahan III (1759-1760)
16. Shah Alam II (1759-1806)
17. Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)
18. Bahadur Shah II, Zafar (1837-1857)
Babur
Babur ascended the throne at Farghana (a small principality in Transoxiana) in 1494 at the tender age of twelve. Expelled from Fargana by his uncle, Babur occupied Kabul in 1504. The rich resources of India and the meagre income of Afghanistan, was certainly an attraction for Babur. The unstable political situation after Sikandar Lodi's death convinced him of political discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, might have whetted Babur's ambitions.
Perhaps Timur's legacy also provided some background for his invasion. After the siege of Bhira in 1519, Babur asked Ibrahim Lodi to return western Punjab which belonged to his uncle Ulugh Beg Mizra.
Much before the final showdown at the battle of Panipat (1526), Babur had invaded India four times. The first to fall was Bhira (1519-1520), the gateway of Hindustan, followed by Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524).
Finally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur's forces met at the historic battlefield of Panipat. The battle lasted for just few hours in favour of Babur. Ibrahim’s forces though many times greater in number fared badly.
The battle of Panipat, though, formally established the Mughal rule in India, it was first among the series of battles in the years to come. For example, to secure this triumph, it was equally important to overcome Rana
Sanga of Mewar and the chieftains in and around Delhi and Agra. Another important opponent in the eastern India was the Afghans. To add to this, problems were mounting within his own nobility.
Rana Sanga of Mewar was a power to reckon with. Babur blamed Rana Sanga for breaking his promise by not siding with him in the battle of Panipat against Ibrahim Lodi. Rana expected Babur to return to Kabul and leave him free to establish his hegemony, if not over whole of Hindustan, at least over Rajputana. Babur's decision to stay back must have given a big jolt to Rana's ambitions. Babur was also fully aware of the fact that it would be impossible for him to consolidate his position in India unless he shattered the Rana's power. Rana Sanga this time succeeded in establishing the confederacv against Babur with the help of Afghan nobles.
In the battle of Khanwa (17th March, 1527) Babur made use of his artillery well. Rana Sanga got severely wounded and was carried to Baswa near Amber. The Rajputs suffered a big loss. Babur's disciplined army, mobile cavalry and his artillery played most decisive role in the battle. Though the Mewar Rajputs received a great shock at Khanwa, Medini Rai at Malwa was still a power to reckon with.
Rajputs regrouped themselves soon and fought again at battle of Chanderi(1528), Babur faced little difficulty in overcoming them. With his defeat, resistance across Rajputana was completely shattered. In quick succession he humbled the dissenting Afghans too. Babur died soon after in December, 1530.
The establishment of the Mughal Empire under the aegis of Babur was significant. Though the Afghans and Rajputs could not be crushed completely, a task left to his successors, however he launched the Timurid dynasty towards the establishment of an all India empire.
Humayun
Unlike Babur, Humayun he did not command the respect and esteem of the nobility. Moreover, the Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had joined Babur's service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun's accession.
To sustain imperial power and hegemony, Humayun had to contend against the Afghans both in the east and the west which was supported by a large social base. But, most dangerous of all, was Humayun's brother
Kamran Mirza. An ambitious Afghan noble named Sher Khan was also heading a noble faction disgruntled with the ascendence of Mughals in India.
Humayun defeated Afghans at Chunar November, 1531. This resulted in the flight of Afghan nobles to Gujarat. This created a political vacuum in the east, providing an opportunity to Sher Khan to consolidate his power. To consolidate his position in the east, he had to tackle with Bengal and Afghan nobles who got shelter under the Bengal ruler.
Sher Shah had to face two invasions of Bengal rulers. However, Bengal' armies were defeated on both the occasions. These successes completely exposed the weakness of the Bengal army. This raised the prestige of Sher Khan. The eastern Afghans who had earlier deserted him now rushed to setve under his banner.
In the turn of events Humayun’s forces met Sher Khan at the battle of Chausa (1539). Showing very poor tactics, Humayun unnecessarily exposed his army. Sher Shah knowing fully well the paucity of Humayun's provisions, equipment and transport wasted no time in exploiting the situation. Large number of Mughal forces were killed. Humayun managed to flee. Humayun reached Agra but by the time, Sher Shah proclaimed himself an independent King which made the final clash was inevitable. Humayun was defeated badly in the battle of Kannauj the banks of Ganga (1540). This paved the way for the establishment of the second Afghan empire in India.
Factors contributed in Humayun's debacle were
He faced hostility of his brothers. On many occassions he dealt with them too kindly.
Sometime he reacted lethargically when the situation demanded swift action.
Humayun also lacked financial resources for continuous warfare. This weakness became very much evident when in Bengal he got stranded and lacked money and supplies.
Sher Shah had the courage, experience and organising abilities. He was skilled in exploiting political opportunities. Humayun could not match his capabilities.
Immediately after the death of his father Babur, Humayun divided his empire into four parts among his brothers. This situation prevented the rise of a centralised state and the political instability was evident in the first major crisis which the Mughals faced (1538-1540)
The Second Afghan Empire
After defeating the Mughal Emperor, Sher Shah declared himself as the sovereign ruler and started building the Second Afghan Empire. The fifteen years (1540-1555) of Afghan rule form an interlude in the history of Mughal Empire. This period was significant for the administrative innovations and reorganisation. During his short reign (1540-1545), he was busy in fighting for keeping his new Empire intact.
Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah (1545-1553), though kept the legacy of his father intact, failed to consolidate it any further. He was most of the time busy in suppressing the intrigues within his own camp which emerged under the leadership of his brother Adil Shah. Besides, his humiliating treatment towards the Niyazi Afghans specifically and the Afghans in general generated more resentment rather than gaining any support. The ill effects of which had to be borne by his son and successor. One finds that in spite of all efforts of Islam Shah to clear the road for the smooth succession of his son after his death (1553) internal strifes marred the infant Afghan kingdom to the advantage of Humayun. Soon after Islam Shah's death, sedition and rebellions marred the entire country and the Empire broke into 'five' kingdoms. This provided an ideal climate for Humayun to strike.
Revival of the Mughal Rule
Trying his luck to win over petty kingdoms of Sind and Rajputana, in 1543 Humayun reached Persia, where he was received by Shah Tahmasp. Humayun promised him in regaining Qandahar, Kabul and Ghazni and would surrender Qandahar to the Shah.
Humayun's success at Qandahar won over many nobles. From 1545 to 1553, Humayun spent his energies mainly in dealing with his brother Kamran who kept Humayun on his toes. Finally, Humayun defeated Kamran and sent him to Mecca after blinding him (where he died in 1557). Now Humayun could plan for the re-acquisition of his lost Indian Empire. He started in November 1554 and reached Lahore in Feb 1555. The final clash took place at Sirhind. Sikandar Shah Sur had to flee towards the Siwalik and the road to Delhi was thus lay clear. Humayun, in June 1555, occupied Delhi. However, he could hardly accomplish the task of conquest and consolidation. He died soon after (26 January 1556) leaving behind his minor son Akbar under heavy odds.
Akbar
Humayun had rescued and restored the Mughal Empire in 1555. But, had it not been for Akbar, the Empire perhaps would not have sustained. It was during his rule that the Mughal Empire became a political fact and an important factor in Indian politics.
At Humayun's death, Akbar was only thirteen years old. It was his tutor and Humayun's confidant, Bairam Khan who served as the regent from 1556-1560. After regaining the control the immediate concern for the kingdom was not only Humayun's death but also a challenge to the Empire by the Afghan forces under Hemu, especially when Akbar was a minor. Mughal forces defeated Hemu in the Second battle of Panipat (1556).
Within few years Akbar emerged out from the shadow of his regent and soon dismissed him in 1560. The tussle between Bairam Khan and the nobility was in fact a conflict between the central authority represented by the regent and the nobility. Bairam Khan's regency was a period of dilemma for Akbar. While he wanted to curtail the independence of the nobility, he needed their support for his power. It was not possible for him to counterbalance this opposition by introducing a new group. The Afghans could not be recruited because they were the main contenders to the throne. The only alternatives were, therefore, the Rajput chiefs, the zamindars or other local chiefs, but this process, if done on large numbers can antagonize the leading nobles, therefore, Akbar will have to wait for some time to implement this policy.
After overcoming initial problems and consolidating his hold on the throne, Akbar started a policy of extending Mughal territories. Any policy of expansion meant conflict with various political powers spread in different parts of the country. A few of these political powers were well organised, the Rajputs, though spread throughout the country as autonomous chiefs and kings, had major concentration in Rajputana. The Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal. In Deccan and South India, the major states were handesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and other southern kingdoms. In the North-west some tribes held their sway. Kabul and Qandahar, though held by Mughal factions, were opposed to Akbar.
Expansion of the Empire
Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his Empire. The major expansion of Mughal Empire took place during the reign of Akbar. During the reigns of his successors (Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb), very little was added in terms of territory. The main additions in the later period were made during Aurangzeb's reign in South India and North-East (Assam).
In 1559-60, Afghans of Jaunpur were defeated easily and it was annexed to the Mughal Empire. Malwa in central India was conquered in 1564.
A calculated policy was devised not only to conquer the kingdoms of Rajputana but turn their rulers into allies. Akbar with the exception of Chittor's Rana Pratap, managed to secure the allegiance of all the Rajput kingdoms. A large number of them were absorbed in Mughal nobility and helped Akbar in expanding and consolidating the Mughal Empire.
Gujarat, apart from being a fertile region, had a number of busy ports and thriving commercial centres ruled by various autonomous principalities. By 1572, most of the principalities of Gujarat were subdued.
By 1592, whole of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa was brought under the Mughal rule.
Kashmir was annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1586.
Consolidation of the Empire
Akbar's policy of conquests and territorial expansion was accompanied by consolidating the new territories into Mughal administrative structure.
In 1580, Akbar djvided the whole territory into 12 provinces which were called subas. After the Deccan conquest, three new subas were added making them to 15. These provinces were governed by a definite set of rules and a body of officers.
Akbar gave a new shape to the military administration. He combined the earlier practices and new measures for organising army and tried to evolve a centralised military structure. He gave Mansabs to both military and civil officers on the basis of their merit or service to the state. Mansab literaly means an office or rank and mansabdar means holder of a rank. All mansabdars were paid in cash or in the form of a jagir. The military administration evolved under Akbar underwent many changes during the rule of his successors.
Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means town of victory) near Agra, starting in 1571.
Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. It incorporated the tomb of the Sufi saint, whom he revered, Shaikh Salim Chisti (1418-1572), who had predicted the birth of his son. The city, however, proved short-lived, with the capital being moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality, or, as some historians believe, that Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599 Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra, from where he reigned until his death.
Akbar adopted two distinct but effective approaches in administering a large territory and incorporating various ethnic groups into the service of his realm. In 1580 he obtained local revenue statistics for the previous decade in order to understand details of productivity and price fluctuation of different crops. Aided by Raja Todar Mal, a Rajput king, Akbar issued a revenue schedule that the peasantry could tolerate while providing maximum profit for the state. Revenue demands, fixed according to local conventions of cultivation and quality of soil, ranged from one-third to one-half of the crop and were paid in cash. Akbar relied heavily on land-holding zamindars. They used their considerable local knowledge and influence to collect revenue and to transfer it to the treasury, keeping a portion in return for services rendered. Within his administrative system, the warrior aristocracy (mansabdars) held ranks (mansabs) expressed in numbers of troops, and indicating pay, armed contingents, and obligations. The warrior aristocracy was generally paid from revenues of nonhereditary and transferable jagirs (revenue villages).
An astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus (including Maryam al-Zamani, the Hindu Rajput mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the majority of the population. He recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages between Mughal and Rajput aristocracy; allowed new temples to be built; personally participated in celebrating Hindu festivals such as Deepavali, or Diwali, the festival of lights; and abolished the jizya (poll tax) imposed on non-Muslims. Akbar came up with his own theory of "ruler ship as a divine illumination," enshrined in his new religion Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Faith”), incorporating the principle of acceptance of all religions and sects. He encouraged widow re-marriage, discouraged child marriage, outlawed the practice of Sati (widows committing suicide on their husband's funeral pyre), and persuaded Delhi merchants to set up special market days for women, who otherwise were secluded at home. By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout most of India north of the Godavari River. The exceptions were Gondwana in central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast, and large parts of the Deccan. In 1600, Akbar's Mughal Empire had revenue of £17.5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire treasury of Great Britain totaled £16 million.
Akbar's empire supported vibrant intellectual and cultural life. A large imperial library included books in Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmiri, English, and Arabic, such as the Shahnameh, Bhagavata Purana and the Bible. Akbar sought knowledge and truth wherever it could be found and through a wide range of activities.
He regularly sponsored debates and dialogs among religious and intellectual figures with differing views, building a special chamber for these discussions at Fatehpur Sikri and he welcomed Jesuit missionaries from Goa to his court. Akbar directed the creation of the Hamzanama, an artistic masterpiece that included 1,400 large paintings.
The territorial expansion under Akbar gave a definite shape to the Mughal Empire. Very little progress was made during the reigns of his successors, viz., Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. After Aurangzeb we find that the process of disintegration of the Empire began.
Jahangir
Jahangir married Mehr-Un-Nisaa, a Persian beauty whom he renamed Nur Jahan (“Light of the World”), who emerged as the most powerful individual in the court besides the emperor. As a result, Persian poets, artists, scholars, and officers—including her own family members—lured by the Mughal court's brilliance and luxury, found asylum in India. The number of unproductive, timeserving officers mushroomed, as did corruption while the excessive Persian representation upset the delicate balance of impartiality at the court.
Jahangir liked Hindu festivals, but promoted mass conversion to Islam; he persecuted the followers of Jainism and even executed Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth saint-teacher of the Sikhs. He did so, however, not for religious reasons. Guru Arjun supported Prince Khursaw, another contestant to the Mughal throne, in the civil war that developed after Akbar's death. The release of 52 Hindu princes from captivity in 1620 is the basis for the significance of the time of Diwali to Sikhs.
Nur Jahan's abortive efforts to secure the throne for the prince of her choice led Shah Jahan to rebel in 1622.
In that same year, the Persians took over Kandahar in southern Afghanistan, an event that struck a serious blow to Mughal prestige. Intentionally, Jehangir set in motion the demise of the empire when he granted King
James I's ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, permission for the British East India Company to build a factory at Surat.
Shah Jahan
Between 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent Mughal armies to conquer the Deccan and the northwest beyond the Khyber Pass. Even though they aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, these campaigns drained the imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, so did the demands for more revenue from the peasantry. Political unification and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts—such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad—linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports. Shah Jahan also had the famous Peacock Throne built with 108 rubies, 116 emeralds, and rows of pearls. The Mughals were very conscious of their dignity as emperors, and dressed and acted the part.
The world-famous Taj Mahal was built in Agra during Shah Jahan's reign as a tomb for his beloved wife,
Mumtaz Mahal. It symbolizes both Mughal artistic achievement and excessive financial expenditures when resources were shrinking. The economic position of peasants and artisans did not improve because the administration failed to produce any lasting change in the existing social structure. There was no incentive for the revenue officials, whose concerns primarily were personal or familial gain, to generate resources independent of dominant Hindu zamindars and village leaders, whose self-interest and local dominance prevented them from handing over the full amount of revenue to the imperial treasury. In their ever-greater dependence on land revenue, the Mughals unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the break-up of their empire. Establishing an elaborate court, with bodyguards, a harem and wearing expensive clothes, more and more tax revenue was needed merely to finance this lavish lifestyle. Meanwhile, the gun-power technology that had given them military superiority, which remained unchallenged within India, could be challenged from the outside by armies with more advanced technology. It was the greed and complacency of the emperors that resulted in their decline, and eventual demise.
Auragzeb
The last of the great Mughals was Aurangzeb. During his fifty-year reign, the empire reached its greatest physical size but also showed the unmistakable signs of decline. The bureaucracy had grown corrupt, and the huge army demonstrated outdated weaponry and tactics. Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance and expanded power southward, at least for a while. A zealous Muslim, Aurangzeb reversed the earlier policies that had helped to maintain good relations with non-Hindus, imposing Islamic law and dealing harshly with Hindus. He destroyed many Temples. Aurangzeb had the khutbah (Friday sermon) proclaimed in his own name, not in that of the Ottoman caliph. Aurangzeb defeated the British between 1688 and 1691.
Aurangzeb was involved in a series of protracted wars against the Pathans in Afghanistan, the sultans of
Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, the Marathas in Maharashtra and the Ahoms in Assam. Peasant uprisings and revolts by local leaders became all too common, as did the conniving of the nobles to preserve their own status at the expense of a steadily weakening empire. The increasing association of his government with Islam further drove a wedge between the ruler and his Hindu subjects. Contenders for the Mughal throne were many, and the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were short-lived and filled with strife. The Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as regional nawabs (governors) broke away and founded independent kingdoms. The Mughals had to make peace with Maratha armies, and Persian and Afghan armies invaded Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne in 1739, subsequently used by the shahs of Persia (Iran).
The Later Mughals
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a war of succession began amongst his three surviving sons, Muazzam
– the governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat, and Kam Baksh-the governor of Deccan. In the tussle for throne, Muazzam emerged victorious and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur Shah I. He was also known as Shah Alam I.
Bahadur Shah I (1707-12) was the first and the last of the later Mughal rulers to exercise real authority. He was learned, dignified and tried to reverse some of the narrow-minded policies and measures adopted by Aurangzeb. He followed a conciliatory policy towards the Rajput’s and Marathas but a strict policy towards the Sikhs.
Previously, the contest for power was between the royal princes; the nobles had merely backed and sided with them. Now they became direct aspirants to the throne and began using the princes as pawns to capture authoritarian positions.
In another war of succession following Bahadur Shah’s death, his four sons, Jahandar Shah, Rafi-us-Shan, Azim-us-Shan and Jahan Shah became involved. Jahandar Shah (1712-13) was successful in the war than the others.
The inglorious reign of Jahandar Shah soon came to an end in 1713 when he was defeated by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra. Zulfikar Khan was soon executed by the orders of the new emperor.
Farrukh Siyar came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan Barha, the kingmakers. It was during the reign of Farrukh that Banda Bahadur the Sikh chief was captured and killed. Qqà
However, the struggle for power between the emperor and the Sayyid brothers increased and the efforts of the emperor to overthrow the brothers failed repeatedly. Sayyid brothers followed a policy of religious tolerance. They abolished the jizyah as well as the pilgrimage tax at many places. In order to maintain harmony, they advocated a policy of associating Hindu chiefs and nobles with Muslim nobles. In their struggle against Farrukh Siyar, the Sayyid brothers sided with the Rajput’s and the Marathas. Ajit Singh of Marwar and Jai Singh of Amber were won over by giving them high positions in the administration. Finally, Farrukh was deposed and killed in 1719.
The efforts made by the Sayyid brothers did not yield great results because they were constantly faced with rival factions and conspiracies in the court. The financial position of the empire was also dwindling as the rebellious elements refused to pay the land tax. This led to increased indiscipline amongst the soldiers.
The hostile nobles united themselves under the leadership of Nizam-ul-Mulk of the Deccan. Further the murder of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of terror and repulsion against the Sayyid brothers who were looked down upon as traitors.
They were branded as anti-Islamic for their policies. The anti-Sayyid nobles were strongly backed by Muhammad Shah who wanted to free him-self from the hold of the brothers. In 1720, Hussain Ali was killed by the rebellious nobles and Abdullah Khan died in 1722 after he was defeated at Agra. This ended the rule of the Sayyid brothers in the Mughal Empire.
After the fall of the Sayyid brothers Muhammad Shah had a long reign (1719-48) to save the empire. The Mughal rule was still held in high esteem by the people. The Mughal army especially the artillery was still the most important force, administration in northern India had deteriorated but not collapsed entirely. The Maratha sardars were still confined to the south and the Rajput’s were loyal to the Mughals.
The already declining Mughal Empire received another fatal blow when the Persian monarch, Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39. Nadir Shah was attracted to India by her fabulous wealth for which she was famous.
The bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy prey in the weak Mughal rule with loose defences on the north- west frontier and used the golden opportunity.
The invasion affected the imperial finances and the economic life of the people adversely. Ahmad Shah Abdali, the successor of Nadir Shah invaded the kingdom for the first time during Muhammad Shah’s reign in 1748.
The death of emperor Muhammad Shah in 1748 saw the beginning of bitter struggles among power hungry nobles of Turani and Irani factions. Soon, Azizuddin, Jahandar Shah’s son took the throne, who styled himself after Aurangzeb as Alamgir II. The military and financial position of the empire during this period became worst to the extent that the emperor’s household troops carried off the articles from the houses of the wazirs and nobles and sold them into the market. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi in 1757 and the imperial city was plundered.
Muhi-ul-Milat, the grandson of KamBaksh was placed on the throne as Shah Jahan III by Imad-ul- Mulk. ‘He was deposed by the Marathas who captured Delhi in 1760.
Ali Gauhar, the son of Alamgir II became the Mughal emperor in 1759 and took up the title of Shah Alam II.
At the time of his father’s death he was in Bihar. Although he was declared the Mughal Emperor, he did not proceed to Delhi for 12 years.
In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English after Lord Lake defeated the Marathas and Shah Alam became the British pensioner. David Ochterlony became the first resident.
After the death of Shah Alam II, his son succeeded as Akbar Shah II. Akbar sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to England to seek a raise in pension. The presentation of Nazrs (gifts involving sovereign status) was ended by Lord Hastings in 1813.
After the death of Akbar II, Bahadur Shah II became the Emperor. He was allowed to retain the imperial title.
He was fond of poetry and had the title of “Zafar.” He took part in the Revolt of 1857. He was captured and tried by the British. Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. Thus ended the Mughal dynasty.
Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire
1. The Role of Aurangzeb
a). The size of the Empire became impossible to govern with available resources and technology- farthest Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy extending it further to the geographical limits in the south at great expense in men and materials. In reality, the existing means of communication and the economic and political structure of the country made it difficult to establish a stable centralized administration over all parts of the country. Mughal lines were open to the attacks of the hostile powers like Marathas and Pathans and it was impossible to collect taxes from all the Jagirs effectively.
b). The deccan policy of Aurangzeb- His futile, but the arduous campaign against the Marathas extended over many years, drained the resources of his Empire and ruined the trade and industry of the Deccan. His absence from the north for over 25 years and his failure to subdue the Marathas Ied to deterioration of the administration, led to the neglect of the vital north-west frontier, and encouraged provincial and local officials to defy central authority and to dream of independence.
Later, in the 18th century, Maratha expansion in the north weakened central authority still further. Instead of annexing Bijapur and Golconda, he should have followed the buffer state policy and to help them against the Marathas. This would have saved his lot of resources and efforts which were needed in other matters of the Empire.
c). The Rajput policy of Aurangzeb- Alliance with the Rajput rajas with the consequent military support was one of the main pillars of Mughal strength in the past. Aurangzeb himself had in the beginning adhered to the Rajput alliance, but his short-sighted attempt later to reduce the strength of the Rajput rajas and to re-extend the imperial sway over their lands led to the withdrawal of their loyalty from the Mughal throne. Wars with the Rajput rajas further weakened the Empire and encouraged separation. In particular, they tended to create a wall between the Hindu and the Muslim upper classes.
d). Religious policy of Aurangzeb- Aurangxeb's religious orthodoxy and his policy towards the Hindu rulers seriously damaged the stability of the Mughal Empire. The Mughal state in, the days of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan was basically a secular state. The Mughal alliance with the Rajput rajas was a visible manifestation of this policy. Aurangzeb made an attempt to reverse this policy by imposing the jizyah, destroying many of the Hindu temples in the north, and putting certain restrictions on the Hindus. However, the role of the religious policy of Aurangzeb in causing the decay of Mughal power should not be over-stressed. This policy was followed only in the latter part of his reign. It was speedily abandoned by his successors. As we have seen earlier, the jizyah was abolished within a few years of Aurangzeb's death. Amicable relations with the Rajput and other Hindu nobles and chiefs were soon restored. It should also be kept in view that the Rajput, Jat, Maratha, and Sikh chieftains of the 18th century also did not behave as champions of the Hindus. Power and plunder were more important considerations to them than religious solidarity. In fact, neither the Hindus nor the Muslims formed a homogenous community at that time. Sometimes the Hindu and Muslim nobles and chiefs used religion as a weapon of propaganda to achieve their political aims. But even more often they formed mutual alliances against fellow co-religionists for gaining power, territory, or money.
2. Recurring Revolts in the provinces- The strength of Aurangzeb's administration was challenged by the Satnami, the Jat, the Afghan and the Sikh revolts . Peasants formed the backbone of these revolts and to a considerable extent, all were the result of the oppression of the Mughal revenue officials over the peasantry. A view suggests that these revolts were encouraged by the Governers who were secretly hostile towards the Imperial office in Delhi or were in search of the opportunities they could get in the face of the breakdown of law and order.
3. Absence of the law of Primogeniture- Every Mughal prince considered himself equally fit to become the ruler and was prepared to fight out his claim. The Mughal dynasty was always plagued after the death of a king by a civil war between the princes. These wars of succession became extremely fierce and destructive during the 18th century. These civil wars loosened the administrative fabric of the Empire.
The nobility, the backbone of the Empire, was transformed into warring factions. Many of the local chiefs and officials utilised the conditions of uncertainty, and political chaos at the centre to consolidate their own position, to acquire greater autonomy, and to make their offices hereditary.
4. Weak Kings after Aurangzeb- The weaknesses of Aurangzeb's reign and the evils of the wars of succession might still have been overcome if able, farsighted, and energetic rulers had appeared on the throne. Unfortunately, after Bahadur Shah's brief reign came a long reign of utterly worthless, weak-willed and luxury-loving kings. After all, in an autocratic, monarchical system of government, the character and personality of the ruler do play a crucial role. At the same time, this single factor need not be given too much importance. In a resource depleted economic base, a faction driven court politics, presence of ambitious nobles and many claimants to the throne always produce weak Kings, not only in the Mughal Empire of this time but at all places at all times.
5. Degeneration of Mughal Nobility- Apart from the personalities of the Great Mughais, the strength of the Mughal Empire lay in the organisation and character of its nobility. The weakness of the king could have been successfully overcome and covered up by an alert, efficient, and loyal nobility. Many nobles lived extravagantly and beyond their means. Even when they went out to fight, they surrounded themselves with comforts and frequently took their families with them. They were often poorly educated. Many of them neglected even the art of fighting. Earlier, many able persons from the lower classes had been able to rise to the ranks of nobility, thus infusing fresh blood into it. Later, the existing families of nobles and to monopolise all offices, barring the way to fresh comers. Not all the nobles, however, bad become weak and inefficient. A large number of energetic and able officials and brave and brilliant military commanders came into prominence during the 18th century, but most of them did not benefit the Empire because they used their talents to promote their own interests and to fight each other rather than to serve the state and society. This gave birth to corruption in the administration and mutual bickering. Their mutual quarrels exhausted the Empire, affected its cohesion, led to its dismemberment, and, in the end, made it an easy prey to foreign conquerors.
6. Jagirdari crisis- But the above characteristics were not the monopoly of the Mughal nobility at the centre.
They were found in equal measure among the rising Maratha chiefs, the Rajput rajas, the Tat, the Sikh, and the Bundela chiefs, the new rulers of autonomous provinces, and the other innumerable adventurers who rose to fame and power during the troubled 18th century. One of the major causes of the growing selfishness and exclusivity of the nobles was the paucity of jagirs and the reduced Income of the existing jagirs at a time when the number of nobles and their expenditure was going up So there ensued intense mutual rivalry among them for the possession of the existing jagirs, which is described as the Jagirdari crisis.
7. Unable to satisfy the minimum needs of the people- A basic cause of the downfall of the Mughal Empire was that it could no longer satisfy the minimum needs of its population The condition of the Indian peasant gradually worsened during the 17th and 18th centuries. While at no time perhaps was this lot happy, in the 18th century the life, was "poor, nasty, miserable and uncertain". The burden of land revenue went on increasing from Akbar's time. Moreover, constant transfer of nobles from their jagirs also led to great evil. They tried to extract at much from a jagir as possible in the short period of their tenure as jagirdars. They made heavy demands on the peasants and cruelly oppressed them, often in violation of official regulations. After the death of Aurangzeb, the practice of Ijaradari took the condition of peasants to new lows. All these factors led to stagnation and deterioration in agriculture and the impoverishment of the peasant.
8. The resources were not able to meet the requirements of the Empire- Agriculture was no longer producing enough surplus to meet the needs of the Empire, of constant warfare, and of the increased luxury of the ruling classes. If the Empire was to survive and regain its strength and if the people were to go forward, trade and industry alone could provide the additional economic resources. But unlike in
Europe at this time, Indian industry did not make any new advances in science and technology. Similarly,
the growth of trade was hampered by bad communications and by the self-sufficient nature of the village economy. Moreover, the emphasis on land as a source of wealth and government revenue led to the neglect of overseas trade and the navy.
9. The attacks of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali- The final blow to the Mughal Empire was given by a series of foreign invasions. Attacks by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, which were themselves the consequences of the weakness of the Empire, drained the Empire of Its wealth, ruined its trade and industry in the North, and almost destroyed its military power.
10. Neglected development of the Navy- Mughals did not pay any attention to sea power and left the coast line completely undefended. It proved fatal as the naval powers of Europe established their mastery over India.
The decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire were due to Economic, Social, Political and Institutional factors.
Akbar’s measures kept the forces of disintegration under check for some time, but could not bring any fundamental changes in the structure of the society.
India lagged behind the world in the field of science and technology and the Mughal ruling class remained blind to this development.
The Mughal Empire had already reached the limits of its development possible under the feudal aristocratic nature of the State and ruling class were putting limits to the economic development of the country. Therefore the roots of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire may be found in the Medieval Indian economy which is marked by the stagnation of trade, industry and scientific development within the limits of the Economy, the growing financial crisis which took the form of Jagirdari crisis and affected every branch of state activity. It also led to the struggle of factions and the bid of ambitious nobles for independent dominions.
Unlike Akbar, no ruler tried to integrate the hostile powers into the Mughal administration and no effort was made to create a composite ruling class in India. The Empire collapsed of its own weight.
It was an Empire, which have to keep reformulating the economic base and the administration, however, by the 18th century it became a kingdom spread over large areas, i.e. it only creamed off the surplus from the trade and the peasantry and no effort was made to reformulate the economy or widen the resource base by administrative intervention.
Finally, the emergence of the British challenge took away the last hope of the revival of the Empire.
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