THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, known as Sangama brothers as they were sons of Sangama, feaudatories of Kakatiyas of Warangal or controlling northern regions of Hoysala kingdom.They went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River. The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom.
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom,over Raichur Doab, lasted for many years. The region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-drawn conflict.
The capital Vijayanagara was more popularly known as Hampi. The Kingdom officially called itself ‘Karnata Rajya’. Portuguese mentioned it as Kingdom of Bisnegar.
There were four dynasties ruled over Vijaynagar. Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty.
1. Sangam Dynasty (1336-1485)
Harihara I and Bukka established Vijaynagar kingdom when Tughlaqs lost their power in Deccan. Saayana and Madhava were learned commentator on the Vedas, were ministers under Bukka I and Harihara II.
During the reign of Deva Raya II, Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Turk ruler Shah Rukh, visited the Vijaynagara kingdom.
2. Saluva Dynasty (1486-1505)
Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut in 1498, during the reign of Narasimha Raya II (also called Immadi Narasimha).
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570)
The dynasty was named "Tuluva" because they belonged to the Tulu speaking region called Tulunad in Karnartaka.
Krishna Deva Raya was the most famous ruler, under whom the empire attained its greatest glory.
He is regarded as a hero by Tuluvas, Kannadigas and Telugus, and one of the great kings of India.
He earned the titles Kannada Raya, Andhra Pitamahand Andhra Bhoja.
His court had Ashtadiggaja, ie eight telugu poets, most famous being Tenali Raman.
Krishnadevraya himself was a great scholar. His major works were Amuktamalyada (work in telugu language, deals with several matters including the art of government) and Jambavati Kalyanam (in Sanskrit based on the Jambavati, one of the eight principal queen-consorts of Lord Krishna)
He patronized female writers and poets. His wife, Tirumalamba Devi, penned an account of the marriage of a Vijayanagar Raya. She followed her husband into the Kalinga War and appreciated poetry in her court.
In 1565 AD, all the Sultanates (Ahmednagar, Golconda, Bijapur, Bidar) joined a coalition against Vijaynagar except Berar. The Battle of Talikota, also known as Battle of Rakshasa- Tangadi, led to the decline of Empire. Thereafter, the city of Vijayanagar was destroyed and looted.
4. Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1646)
Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.
The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III.
Foreign Travellers
1. Ibn Bututa (1333-1347) : Moroccan traveller, who visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, came to Vijayanagar during the reign of Harihar I.
2. Nicolo Conti (1420-1421) : Italian traveller, who gave a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar.
3. Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444) : Persian traveller, who stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar city, while describing the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles.
4. Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516) : Portuguese traveller, who has given a valuable narrative of the government and the people of the Vijaynagar Empire.
5. Domingo Paes (1520-1522) : Portuguese traveller, who visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
6. Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537) : Portuguese merchant, who wrote the history of the empire from its earliest days to the closing years of Acchyutdeva Raya’s reign.
Administration
For administration, the Empire was divided into Rajya/Mandala(provinces), which were subdivided into Valanadu/Kottam/Vishaya/Vente (different names are used in different sources). These units were further divided into Nadu/Chimai (group of villages) which themselves were divided into Kampana/Sthala/Isthalam (village).
As the kingdom expanded, it maintained local traditions in areas annexed into the Empire, therefore, the Hoysala, Kakatiya, Sena and Pandya administrative machinery was adjusted to current needs and retained.
The empire was essentially a war administration. Every aspect of the governance indicated the sole purpose of repulsing invasion from surrounding sultanates.
The King’s cabinet was composed of Mahapradhana (Prime minister) and several Pradhanas (ministers). Other high officers were Karyakartha or Rayaswami (chief secretary) and Adhikari (imperial officers). All ministers and officers were required to have military training, with military dutiesand given the title Dandanayaka or Dandanatha.
The use of paper for administrative purposes was popularised, though about 7000 stone and copper plate inscriptions (Shasana) have also been discovered so far.
Provincial Administration
Each of the five main Rajya/Mandala had their own language. Rajya were ruled by a member of the royal family or a very high ranking official close to the royal family.
Important towns were overseen by Adhikari (mayor).
Village Administration
At the village level, Village Panchayat was basis of local administration, woring under supervision of officers like Gowda (wealthy feudal landlords), Karanika/Karnam (accountants) and Kavalu (watchman). Later Ayagars (hereditary village functionaries) took over the entire functions of the village assembly.
The central government did not interfere in the internal administration of the villages.
Nayakar System
The government became more decentralized later with more autonomy given to Nayakas/Nayakaras and Palyagars(feudal lords).
Nayakara were military chiefs who were granted amaram lands (Land with a fixed revenue given to Nayaks) by kings. They had to pay a fixed annual financial contribution to the imperial exchequer and must maintain troops to assist kings in times of war. They were guardian of law and order and administration in their areas. Later, Office became hereditary, when the kings became weak.
Hereditary families like the Pandyas and the Santharas (of Karnataka region) administered their own territories as feudatories. Some maintained their tag of dependent dynasty whereas many others accepted the title of Nayakar.
Military
The army recruited from all classes of society and caste was no bar to rise to high military positions.
There were two types of armies. The Central army and the feudatory armies which were expected to contribute in case of war.
Krishnadevaraya had a standing army of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 horses and 900 elephants. Some travelogues speak that by adding feudal forces infantry can be expanded above a million.
Economy
It has been firmly established from foreign accounts and other sources as well that in the Vijayanagar Empire prevailed unbounded prosperity, where not only king and nobles were rich but even the common people enjoyed prosperity and could afford to wear ornaments in their ears, necks, arms, fingers, etc.
The prosperity of the Vijayanagar Empire was on account of the growth of agriculture, industries, trade and commerce. Architecture, specially temple-building and civil architecture, provided employment to a substantial workforce.
The principal industries comprised of textiles, mining, metallurgy, perfumery etc for domestic consumption and exports.
Agriculture
Majority of agriculture was done by tenants although they had certain rights and could even claim of ownership of the land over time (unlike tenants of Permanent Settlement).
States pursued a planned irrigation and taxation policy. Taxation was set to encourage the production of ‘important’ crops like rose cultivation (needed for perfumery), salt production etc was taxed at lower rate. Canals were provided by states, although not through the entire empire, whereas tanks were funded by states or privately owned.
Main crops- jowar, cotton, and pulse (in dry regions), sugarcane, rice, and wheat (in river basins and deltas). Betel leaves, areca, and coconut, cotton and spices (turmeric, pepper, cardamom, ginger etc) were main cash crops.
The large-scale cotton and spice production supplied the main inputs to export industry.
Portuguese influence the growth of onion, groundnut and tobacco and into practice.
Taxes were levied on all land revenues and trading items. Taxes on homes, trader shops, marriage, toddy, salt and even prostitution has been confirmed. The inscriptions of the time tell that the common people ‘groaned under the weight of heavy taxation that was collected with rigour by the local Governors.
Shist was land tax, named so as it was one-sixth of the produce. Manyam was tax free land whereas amaram was the land given to Nayaks (which fetches a fixed revenue/tribute to the state).
Trade
According to Abdur Razzaq the Empire ‘possessed 300 seaports’, acting as the thriving market centres and node of imports and exports.
Main Exports- cotton textiles (famously calicos and muslin), spices (pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom etc), jewels, iron and steel, diamonds (of kollur mines), semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes.
Main Imports
Coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, coloured camlets.
Chinese vessels, copper, quicksilver, vermilion and Silk from China.
Horses from Persia and Arab.
Sugar from Bengal.
Rice, millet, pulses and tobacco from Golconda.
Gold and silver (as utensils, jewellery and mainly as trade surplus)
Important ports- Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and Dharmadam. Traders from Arabs, Persians, Gujarat, Khorasan, Portugal etc settled in these port cities.
These ports emerged as centres of Ship building industry.
Coinage
Both gold and copper types of coinage were prevalent in Vijayanagar Empire. There is only one specimen of silver coin. The coins had on them the emblems of different gods and animals that varied with the religious faith of the rulers.
The gold coins were called Pagodas or Varaha(because the most common symbol was Varaha, the Boar incarnation of Vishnu).
Harihara I and Bukka I used the Hanuman symbol in their coins.
Krishna Deva Raya's coins had the figures of Venkatesh and Balkrishna.
Achyuta Raya used Garuda while Tirumala maintained the original Varaha.
Capital City
Many foreign travellers described it as an unprecedented city, larger than Rome or any biggest city in the western world with beautiful lakes, open gardens, broad and well laid roads and splendid buildings. City was built in such a way that seven guarding fort gates were built within each other. The circumference of the city was sixty miles and its walls extended to the hills.
In the city there was a separate market for every main occupation. The jewellers freely and securely sold diamonds, pearls rubies etc in burgeoning markets of precious gems and gold.
About 90,000 people of the city were capable of wielding weapons (soldiers).
Water Management
The populace of the city was completely dependent on Tungabhadra River. A dam provided water to the city via long canal, with sliding gate, which further splits into various channels and water storages ensuring supply in dry months of this semi-arid region. This cananl system was also used to guide the river water of Tungabhadra river into irrigation tanks near agricultural fields. The remains of these hydraulic systems and huge tanks can now be seen in the ruins of Hampi.
A separate water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes used sophisticated channels working via gravity and siphons use to provide water to elites, whereas large water tanks to collect the rain water used to provide water for common masses. Wells and tanks dug by state or via private charity were main source of water locally.
Society
The Hindu caste system was prevalent in Vijayanagar Empire and the caste regulations were taken care of by the elders of each community. However, those who distinguished themselves in war and other services were promoted to high ranking cadre without caste or religious discrimination.
Towns and provincial assemblies had representation from all castes, sects and religions, represented by leaders called Kaivadadavaru. Brahmins, held in high esteem, exercised a great influence not merely in social and religious matters but also in the political affairs of the State. Their separation from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters.
The popularity of low-caste scholars (such as Molla and Kanakadasa) and their works (including those of Vemana and Sarvajna) is an indication of the degree of social fluidity in the society.
Foreign travellers referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques.
In the matters of diet there were no strict restrictions and meat of all kind (except that of oxen or cows since people had great veneration for them), was taken by the general population.
Nuniz describes the diet of the Vijaynagar kings: “These kings eat all sorts of things, but not the flesh of oxen or cows, which they never kill because they worship them. They eat mutton, pork, vension, partridges, hares, doves, quail, and all kinds of birds even sparrows and rats, and cats, and Lizards”
The Carnatic music and Classical dance forms assumed their current forms during this period.
Physical exercises and wrestling were important male preoccupations for sport and entertainment. Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records. Wrestling matches between men was a common sport apart from cock fights, ram fights and wrestling between women.
Women
The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, like Lingayatism, eased social norms for women, who by this time started crossing the barriers in Southern India. They were actively involved in matters, generally considered the monopoly of men and took part in trade, clerical work, wrestling events apart from other activities like music and dance. According to Nuniz, “The king of Vijayanagara has also women who wrestle, and others who are astrologers and soothsayers and has women who write all the accounts of expenses that are incurred insides the gates of the palace and others whose duty is to write all the affairs of the kingdom and compare their books with those of writers outside. He has women also for music, who play instruments and sing. Even the wives of the kings are well-versed in music”. The wall carvings show prancing horses with women riders, as well as women taming rider-less horses, as elephant mahouts, practising archery, sword fighting, hunting, wrestling etc.
Some inscriptions highlight the economic independence of certain women, eg- donation provided by Chinnamamba, for construction of a watertank or Kuppayani, who contributed to the building of irrigation canals in Tirumala.
An inscription, dated 1542 AD, mentions entire regions ruled by women, under Achyuta Raya. The Rayas trusted their administrative capabilities and the women were known to effectively rule their regions.
Notable women poets were spread across the Empire in all times. Tirumalamba Devi (wrote Varadambika Parinayam- the story of the marriage of a Hampi king), Gangadevi (wrote Madhuravijayam- a poem on invasion and conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by her husband), Tallapaka Timmakka, Atukuri Molla (both telugu poets) are few notable women poets. The court of Nayaks of far south patronised several women poets.
Society had become mostly monogamous though kings and royalty continued to have harems.
Sati, also called Sahgaman, was prevalent among the royal and soldier families. Various inscriptions have been discovered in Vijayanagara which are called Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone)
Devadasi and prostitution as professions thrived. Certain streets in the towns were meant for them. Prostitution was even taxed by State.
Women wore sarees and blouses while men wore only a lower garment, though stitched clothes like shirts were occasionally. Men wore jewellery just as women did, like Finger rings, ear rings, necklaces, bangles and bracelets etc. Rich men wore the Petha or Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold.
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